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07-08-2022 - 12:17 pm
مرحبا
شخباركم صبايا
صراحه انا عندي موضوع قلت مالها غير فراشاتها
اول شي هو نختار اي موضوع ولازم نسلمه يوم الاحد عن اي شي تتكلمين عنه
انا بتكلم عن السعوديه
اول شي مثلا عدد مدنها وعدد سكانها صفات اهلها واحوالها الجويه وكل شي يتكلم عن السعوديه ابي هالموضوع بالانجليزي عشان اقدمه يوم الاحد بليز ساعدوني
وربي مخي مقفل
واللي عندها موضوع غيره جاهز تعطيني ياه واكون شاكره لها انتزركم حبايبي لاحد يسفهني
شخباركم صبايا
صراحه انا عندي موضوع قلت مالها غير فراشاتها
اول شي هو نختار اي موضوع ولازم نسلمه يوم الاحد عن اي شي تتكلمين عنه
انا بتكلم عن السعوديه
اول شي مثلا عدد مدنها وعدد سكانها صفات اهلها واحوالها الجويه وكل شي يتكلم عن السعوديه ابي هالموضوع بالانجليزي عشان اقدمه يوم الاحد بليز ساعدوني
وربي مخي مقفل
واللي عندها موضوع غيره جاهز تعطيني ياه واكون شاكره لها انتزركم حبايبي لاحد يسفهني
التعليقات (5)
ياقلبي مو شرط عن السعوديه
اي موضوع عندك جاهز جيبيه
واكون شاكره ياقلبو
اي موضوع عندك جاهز جيبيه
واكون شاكره ياقلبو
Saudo Arabia
History
Nomads & the birth of Islam
The Arabian Peninsula -- including Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, the Sultanate of Oman, Yemen and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia -- had been practicing agricultural, herding and hunting cultures for thousands of years.
Because they lived on important ancient trade routes, the ancestors of today's Saudi Arabians were influenced by such varying civilizations as Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Byzantium, India, Persia and China.
The Holy Quran was revealed to the Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him) in the western Arabian cities of Makkah and Madinah beginning about 610 AD.
The birth of the new faith of Islam was an important historical event. Inspired by their new religion, the Arabs expanded from Arabia, spreading Islam and the Arabic language as far west as the Atlantic Ocean and as far east as central Asia.
The Islamic civilization remained vigorous for centuries, providing stability and advancing human knowledge when most of western ****pe was in a state of chaos and superstition known to historians as the Dark Ages. In the 13th century, the Mongol invasions dealt a devastating blow to the Arabs' eastern lands and their empire began to decline.
King Abdul Aziz
When King Abdul Aziz and Sixty men headed for Riuadh in June 1901, his sole motive was to restore the purity and primacy of Islam rather than any worldly gain. He was inspired by the history of his ancestors and spared no efforts I his stgruggle to regain his ancestors rule. The story fo his recapute of Riyadh is well-know. It was in fact the point of departure from which he began his campaign. His battles and conquests were many including the recapture of Jeddah and Madinah. He spent 31 years in continuous struggle from the time he left Riyadh until he succeeded in reuniting the Kingdom under the system of Tawheed (monotheism).
The history of modern Saudi Arabia begins in the year 1902 when Abdul Aziz Al-Sa'ud and a band of his followers captured the city of Riyadh, returning it to the control of his family.
Abdul Aziz was born about 1880 and spent the early years of his life with his father in exile in Kuwait. After the capture of Riyadh, he spent the next twelve years consolidating his conquests in the area around Riyadh and the eastern part of the country from where the Turks were expelled.
The Arab tribes had never liked the Turks and they were only too willing to listen to a new ruler whose ambitions were aided considerably by the troubles of the Ottoman Empire.
On the 2nd of September 1933, the lands under the control of Abdul Aziz were renamed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and in 1936 a treaty was signed with Yemen marking the southern borders of the Kingdom.
The main preoccupations of Abdul Aziz were the consolidation of his power and the restoration of law and order to all parts of his recently created kingdom. To these ends, he developed a system whereby every Sheikh was responsible for his own tribe under the authority of the king who was empowered to intervene to impose law and order. It was clearly understood that internal anarchy within the Kingdom could quickly lead to foreign intervention. And all were agreed that this was unacceptable.
The growing state
King Abdul Aziz died in November 1953 after more than half a century as leader and king. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Saud bin Abdul Aziz, who devoted a great deal of time to fostering the Kingdom's relations with its neighbours.
His reign saw solid achievements in the field of education, social services as well as the expansion of the Holy Places in Makkah and Madinah. There were, however, some financial difficulties during Saud's kingship which resulted in the Crown Prince, Faisal bin Abdul Aziz, introducing austerity measures which were aimed at putting the Kingdom on a solid financial base.
King Saud abdicated after 11 years in favour of his brother the Crown Prince. King Faisal continued the programmes of reorganisation and reform, following the policy of 'change -- but slowly'. This of course created a firm basis upon which the central government and administration rested.
The main objective of King Faisal's reign was development of the Kingdom's resources. The First Development Plan was introduced during his reign, in 1969/70. Although there were constraints within the plan, it did clearly indicate the Kingdom's importance as a leading financial power in the Islamic world and also in the international economy as a major oil producer.
Boom & dissent
It was during the late King Khalid's reign that Saudi Arabia enjoyed the prosperity and enormous wealth of the so-called 'boom years'. The physical growth of the Kingdom's cities during those years was amazing.
It was also during King Khalid's reign that the first serious evidence of public dissension and disagreement surfaced within Saudi society. In November 1979 several hundred armed radicals seized control of the Grand Mosque in Makkah and used the public address system to denounce the Royal family and the country's rush to modernisation. The people of the country, however, failed to support them and government troops were involved in a 10-day operation to regain control of the mosque. At the end of the operation, 117 of the radicals had died and 63 were captured by government troops. Six weeks later, they were executed in various cities throughout the Kingdom.
King Fahad and the Gulf War
King Khalid died in June 1982 and was succeeded by Crown Prince Fahad bin Abdul Aziz.
King Fahad was well-versed in the arts of government as he had served as the country's first Minister of Education and as King Khalid had been in poor health for much of his reign, Fahad had ruled in all but name.
King Fahad's reign was marked by continuing development within the country and the infrastructure. On the political front, the open hostility from Iran toward Saudi Arabia led the government to strengthen its ties of defence with the USA, Britain and France.
Within days of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in late summer 1990, King Fahad allowed US troops into the Kingdom to defend the country. In November 1990, King Fahad announced that plans were being made for the formation of a Consultative Council; there was some feeling that this was done in response to criticism that he had not consulted widely enough before allowing foreign troops into the Kingdom. In any case, in March 1992, the King announced that the Consultative Council would be appointed by year's end and he also made its duties clear.
Like other such creations in the Gulf states, the Council is a purely consultative body with no legislative powers whatever. Its formation, however, simply puts an official stamp on the long-standing system of consultation which has long been a mark of Arab politics and society.
Jeddah: growth of the glittering city
Jeddah, the largest city in Saudi Arabia's Western Province, once nestled sleepily on the shores of the Red Sea, with no premonition of its prestigious future. Today it hums, glitters and resounds with industry, technology and cosmopolitan human life.
The origin of the city's name poses an interesting dilemma for etymologists. Juddah (pronounced Jiddah) in Arabic means seashore, which seems logical enough, but the school of thought which prefers Jaddah or grandmother, is given credence by the traditional location of Eve's tomb within the city. Jeddah is, in fact, incorrect, but is popularly used by most non-Saudis living there.
The story of Jeddah is one of expansion on a colossal scale. This expansion has been both rapid and recent, mostly within the past 20 years. A look at the figures is staggering. In 1947, the city encompassed no more than one square kilometre, and its population was about 30,000. Now, with a population of approximately one and a half million, Jeddah occupies an area of 560 square kilometres and stretches for 80km north to south along its coastline. Between the boom years of 1974 and 1980, the population of Jeddah doubled, and statistical experts predict that this figure will have doubled again by the end of the century.
Jeddah is the Kingdom's principal seaport, the original gateway to Makkah and Madinah for pilgrims arriving by ship. Recently, the influx of pilgrims from abroad has increased dramatically with the building of Jeddah's International Airport and its architecturally unique Hajj terminal. Today, Jeddah welcomes 97% of all pilgrims arriving by sea and 98% of those arriving by air. This places huge demands on consumer goods, building materials, hotel accommodation, and technical and administrative services, thus providing an enormous boost to the city's economic prosperity.
Jeddah has grown from humble origins. It began about 2,500 years ago as a tiny fishing settlement, established by the Quada's tribe. In AD647, Caliph Osman Ibn Affan chose Jeddah as the main port for the city of Makkah, and it became known as Bilad al Kanasil -- the City of Consulates. In the 16th century, the Ottomans built a stone wall around the town, in order to fortify it against attacks from the Portuguese. Originally, four gates were set in these walls, Bab Sherif opening towards the south, Bab Makkah facing east, Bab Madinah in the north wall and a west gate facing the Red Sea.
Bab Jadeed, the new gate, was not built until the early 1900s and was wide enough to accommodate the motor car. Sentries were posted at these gates, which were closed at dusk. Entering the town after dark would, no doubt have proved a challenging business.
Jeddah remained a fortified, walled town for centuries of Ottoman influence and was not released from Turkish rule until 1915. Further evidence of Turkish influence can be seen in Jeddah's architecture. The buildings of old Jeddah were tall and graceful, constructed of coral limestone and decorated with intricately beautiful wooden facades, known as rawasheen (singular roshan). These were designed not only to break up the sun's glare, but also to take advantage of the cooling sea breezes when the inner windows were opened. One cannot help but feel that, with the enclosure of the town within high, fortified walls, the sea breezes may not have stood much chance of reaching Jeddah's early inhabitants; hence their penchant for building their houses tall and for sleeping on the roofs on hot summer nights.
Some of these beautiful old houses still exist in Jeddah, if you know where to look. However, their number is sadly declining and many are in a poor state of repair. An extensive renovation programme, run by the Historical Area Preservation Department, was set up in 1990 and aims to protect the city's architecture and heritage. The department now employs a staff of over fifty people and organises digs, tours and local research.
In bygone days, the streets of Old Jeddah were twisting, unpaved and haphazard, flanked by closely-packed buildings. A thick layer of sand covered these streets, packed solid by numerous tramping feet. Mingling with the strolling inhabitants, water carriers and other street vendors, camel caravans once plodded their way through the wider thoroughfares, while goats and donkeys wandered in the narrow alleys.
The souq was the heartbeat of Old Jeddah and is still an exciting and picturesque part of today's city. In those far-off days open-fronted shops grouped together according to trade; an old Oriental bazaar tradition, which has continued, to some extent, into modern life. Wares were displayed in the street under palm-leafed canopies, sheltering traders from the relentless sun -- a far cry from the modern-day comforts of air-conditioning in the luxurious shopping malls of the 1990s.
When the Suez Canal opened in 1869, Jeddah became one of the main ports on the trade route between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian and Pacific Oceans. As a result, the city's wealth increased dramatically, and Jeddah's inhabitants became more cosmopolitan. ****pean diplomatic legations were established on the northern side of the city, and rich merchants began to build their family homes here. Sailors awaiting the departure of their ships on the spice routes often used their craft skills to decorate the facades of these dwellings. Pilgrims often brought goods from their native lands to sell in Jeddah, and those who could not afford the homeward journey often stayed on and settled here. These men sometimes married into a local family and became permanent residents of Jeddah.
Modernisation of the city forged ahead with the passing of the years. By 1929 the first house of reinforced concrete had been built; less attractive than the delicate coral limestone, perhaps, but certainly a more durable alternative. 1940 saw the advent of electricity, 1948 marked the arrival of the first airfield, and in 1965 the first automatic telephone system was introduced.
The reign of King Abdul Aziz and the unification of the Kingdom brought new stability to Jeddah, and its enclosing walls became obsolete. Expansion had become essential, too, and the city walls were therefore demolished. An interesting local story tells how the broken rocks from the demolished wall were used as fill for the new pier in Jeddah harbour, which was built to enable larger steamers to come alongside. The story is probably apocryphal -- a pity, if so, as there is a certain gentle irony in the idea that the rocks once used to discourage invading forces are now helping visitors to come ashore.
Jeddah's building boom began in the Seventies and still continues at a breathtaking pace. New shopping centres, office building and apartment blocks are springing up everywhere. Stretches of former desert have now become part of an expanding, lush green city. Jeddah has successfully managed to combine the dignity and traditions of the past with the dynamism of the modern business world.
Geography
Introduction
Occupying four-fifths of the Arabian peninsula, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the Middle East. In south-western Asia, the country is at the crossroads of three continents: ****pe, Asia and Africa.
On the west it is bordered by the Red Sea and on the east by the Arabian Gulf. To the south there are borders with Yemen and the Sultanate of Oman. To the east lie the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and the island state of Bahrain. In the north Saudi Arabia has borders with Kuwait, Iraq and Jordan.
The country's area is estimated to be some 2,331,000 sq km (900,000 sq mi). "Estimated" is the correct word, as only the borders in the north, the border with Qatar and a part of the border with Yemen are precisely demarcated.
There is a 7000 sq km (2700 sq mi) neutral zone between Saudi Arabia and Iraq in which no permanent structures or military establishments may be put; bedouin from both countries have access to the area. The zone is divided equally according to a 1975 agreement.
Between Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, there is also a divided zone covering about 5770 sq km (2230 sq mi). Saudi Arabia administers the south-ern half but the oil revenues from the area is split between the two countries.
The country has a varied topography including -- besides the well-known deserts -- a green, mountainous area in its south-western corner.
Despite appearances, there is considerable life in the desert, especially after winter rains. Plants such as desert camomile, scarlet pimpernel, heliotrope and wild iris are common as well as small animals such as lizards, porcupines, hedgehogs and rabbits.
Saudi Arabia's terrain is varied but on the whole it presents a barren and harsh appearance with salt flats, gravel plains and sand dunes but few lakes or permanent streams. In the south of the country is the famous Empty Quarter (in Arabic, Rub al Khali), the largest continuous sand desert in the world. It is linked to another large sandy desert, the Nafud, in the north of the country. In the south-west, there are mountains rising to over 9,000 feet and rain is not uncommon there.
Climate
The climate of Saudi Arabia varies from one province to another. The Kingdom lies in the tropics, and the nationwide average temperature is 18°C (64°F). Local average vary considerably from 24°C (75°F) in the Western Province, rising as we descend towards the southwest until it reaches 28°C (82°F) in Jeddah and 30°C (86°F) in Jizan. In the northwest, the average temperature is 22°C in Tabouk and 28°C in Madinah, which is 850 meters above the sea level. In the Asir region in the southwest, the average temperature is only 19°C because of the high altitude. The central province, which is surrounded by desert, has an average of 25°C for Riyadh, 21°C in Hai'l and 23°C in Qaseem. In Dhaharan, the eastern Province, the temperature is an average of 26°C. Apart from topographical factors, Saudi Arabia's climate is also affected by tropical winds which cause monsoons the west and southwest. These occur during the summer months. In the south, tropical continental winds blow particularly in winter often accompanied by sandstorms.
Saudi Arabia is one of the driest countries in the world, with rainfall averaging less than 5 inches per year. Marked seasons, in the ****pean or American sense, do not exist.
The climate is principally determined by the southerly shift in wind patterns during the winter months which brings rain and cool weather.
Other factors such as latitude, proximity to the sea and altitude, also affect the climate. In the Empty Quarter, the great southeastern sand desert, ten years may pass with no rain. The Asir Highlands in the south receive rainfall due to the monsoon that may exceed 255mm (10 inches) per year. Jeddah, on the shores of the Red Sea, has a hot and humid climate year-round. Taif, on the other hand, and Abha, enjoy much more temperate weather.
Summer is hot with temperatures in some areas reaching 49°C (120°F). Winter is cooler with an average temperature of 23°C (74°F) in Jeddah and 14°C (58°F) in Riyadh. Winter temperatures drop below freezing in the central and northern parts of the country and snow and ice sometimes occur in the higher elevations in the south-west.
In areas where there is little ground cover, a northwesterly wind blows for most of the summer months and may, especially in the eastern part of the country, whip up violent sandstorms.
Between October and May is generally pleasant with cool nights and sunny days. Night temperatures in the coastal areas may dip into the 40s (Fahrenheit). From April to November, on the other hand, temperatures are considerably higher and life without air-conditioning would be very unpleasant indeed.
The Arabian oryx
The Arabian oryx is a medium-sized, white antelope, with black patches on its face, and dark legs. It stands about one metre high and has two gently curving horns, which are about 50cm in length. Its grace and beauty are legendary.
Before the beginning of the nineteenth century, oryx were abundant in all parts of the Arabian Peninsula. Since the advent of twentieth-century weapons and modes of transport, however, this beautiful animal has been extensively hunted until near-extinction. The few remaining animals retreated into the Rub' Al-Khali (the Empty Quarter) desert to escape from the hunter's gun.
In centuries past, images of the oryx probably gave rise to its more famous mythical counterpart -- the unicorn. This beast of legend had a horse's body and a single, long, spiral horn projecting from the middle of its forehead. A side view of the oryx, when seen from a distance, would seem to strengthen this image of legend, as the two, finely carved horns may then seem to merge into one.
To many western writers, Arabia was seen as a land of charm and mystery. Because so little was known about it, travelers and poets often used it as the site of strange, mythological happenings. In the thirteenth century, Garillaume of Normandy wrote in his book, Le Besteare Divin, the now famous legend of the unicorn and the virgin -- how the beast could not be captured unless it laid its head in a damsel's lap. Only then would it lose its great ferocity and allow itself to be captured by the hunter.
Arab poets, too, extolled the beauty and grace of the oryx, often using these qualities metaphorically to compare the animal with a beautiful woman. The Bedouin believed that if a man captured an oryx, he could in some way capture for himself its virtues of strength, courage and endurance. There can be little doubt that there is something compelling about this beast, which makes it the source of such a wealth of poetry and legend.
But, what of the real oryx? Thriving for many centuries in the Arabian desert, it is perfectly adapted to withstand an inhospitable climate and barren landscape. It has evolved the ability to go without water entirely and, if necessary, can survive for years without drinking. The animal satisfies its thirst by licking early morning dew which gathers on the leaves of desert plants, and by obtaining moisture from the plants themselves. Desert grasses, tamarisk, broomrape and desert gourd are all sources of food and liquid for the oryx. On the rare occasions of desert rainfall, an oryx herd can detect the rains from a far distance and can easily find the rainy area. Some zoologists believe that the body of the oryx contains a kind of built-in 'radar system', which enables it to do this.
The oryx has never been an easy animal to capture and has always presented a great challenge to the hunter. It proved difficult to track in the vast, empty desert landscape and, without the benefit of modern transport, capture and conveyance of the carcass were almost impossible. There was virtually no wastage on the rare occasions when an oryx was successfully hunted. Every part of the animal, including horns, fat, skin and blood, served a useful purpose. Oryx meat was particularly prized, as it was believed to possess medicinal properties.
By 1972, the oryx in its wild state had been completely wiped out. Extinction would have been inevitable, had it not been the efforts of an enlightened King and a far-sighted team of conservationists. A few animals had been rescued and bred in captivity in American and ****pean zoos. Here the oryx thrived and numbers increased. Under the auspices of the late King Khaled Ibn Abd al-Aziz, the oryx was reintroduced into its homeland a few years later. In Jaddat al-Harasis, the oryx's last known habitat, a small herd was set free, and is now protected. Allowed to roam free and unharmed, the herd continues to thrive and increase in number.
Zoos in Arab countries and in the West are also ensuring the continued existence of the oryx. On the late King Khaled's farm in Riyadh, on various farms in Qatar and Al-'Ain Zoo in the Emirates, these beautiful animals are doing well. As it continues to flourish under protection, the future of the Arabian oryx looks brighter today than at any other time this century
Culture
People
The overwhelming majority of Saudi Arabians are Arabs, descended from the indigenous tribes and still today maintaining tribal affiliation. Along the Arabian Gulf coast, there are some Iranians.
The number of expatriate workers is large with the bulk coming from Egypt, Pakistan, India and the Philippines. The economy is almost totally dependent upon foreign labour, though efforts are beginning to be made to lessen this dependence.
Religion
Islam along with Judaism and Christianity is one of the world's three great monotheistic religions. Islam is the official religion of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its tenets are enshrined as law. The public practice of any religion other than Islam is not allowed in Saudi Arabia.
About 85% of the population are Sunni Muslims and the remaining 15%, primarily on the east coast, are Shiite Muslims. The ***es are strictly segregated in public although educational and job opportunities for women are increasing.
The followers of Islam, called Muslims, believe in one God -- Allah in Arabic -- and that Mohammed (peace be upon him) was His last prophet.
Today there are over one billion Muslims in the world and they include many races and cultures on every continent. Saudi Arabia occupies a special place in the Islamic world as the birthplace and heartland of Islam.
It is toward the sacred Ka'abah -- a black cube-shaped stone in the square of the Holy Mosque in Makkah -- that Muslims turn in prayer five times a day. Every Muslim must pray these five prayers and, in Saudi Arabia, offices and shops are obliged to close during those times. Exact prayer times are published in daily newspapers and occur at dawn (fajr), midday (dhuhr), mid-afternoon (asir), sunset (maghreb) and evening (isha).
The Holy Quran is the sacred scripture of Islam, revealed by Allah to His Prophet Mohammed. Islam consists of adherence to the Quran and the duty to believe and follow what are called the Five Pillars of Islam:
The First Pillar is the profession of faith -- shahada: There is no god but Allah and Mohammed is the messenger of Allah.
The Second Pillar is prayer -- salah. Prayer is to be performed according to prescribed rituals at appointed times each day. At the time of prayer, the individual must face the Holy Ka'abah in Makkah.
The Third Pillar is almsgiving -- zakat. This mandates payment of a fixed proportion of a Muslim's possessions for the welfare of the entire community and especially for its neediest members.
The Fourth Pillar is fasting -- sawm. During the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, Ramadan, Muslims must abstain from all food, drink and ***ual activity from dawn to sunset.
The Fifth Pillar is the pilgrimage to Makkah -- hajj. At least once in a lifetime, Muslims should make the journey to Makkah. In fact large numbers of Muslims from all over the world come to Makkah each year in the performance of Hajj. Saudi Arabia dedicates considerable resources, both human and financial, to enable these Muslims to perform their Hajj in comfort and safety.
To the people of Saudi Arabia, Makkah, the birthplace of Islam and the prophet Mohammed, as well as Madina, where the Prophet's Mosque and his burial place are located, are holy cities. And because of this, none except Muslims may enter these two cities.
Recognizing the unique and historic traditions represented by these two holy sites, King Fahad has adopted the official title of Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques as an expression of his deep sense of responsibility to Islam and to all Muslims
Language
Arabic is a Semitic language. It is spoken and understood in various forms by millions of people throughout the Middle East and beyond. It is one of the official languages of the United Nations.
Classical Arabic, the language of the Quran, is used only in writing and rarely in speech. A standardized modern Arabic is used for newspapers, television and conversation with local variations.
Arabic is written in a flowing cursive style from right to left. The alphabet consists of 28 letters, all consonants. Vowels are expressed either by positioned points or by inserting letters in positions where they would normally not occur. The letters take different shapes depending on their place in words. The appearance and guttural sounds make it seem a complex language; however, basic conversational Arabic is not difficult to learn.
Bedouin jewellery
Petrological discoveries in Saudi Arabia have revealed rock face carvings that show human forms, lavishly adorned with bracelets, anklets, earrings, pendants and head ornaments. Although these rock sketches are more than seven thousand years old, they portray styles bearing a strong resemblance to the bold, distinctive designs of today's Bedouin jewellery. Admittedly, few of the pieces currently around are more than 50 years old, but the origin of the patterns and shapes is deeply-rooted in ancient times. Long-dead civilisations such as the Roman and Byzantine empires, Egyptian pharaohs, ancient Persians, Phoenicians, Turkish sultans -- all have been sources of inspiration for the exotic and ornate pieces of jewellery in the Bedouin range.
Traditionally, Bedouin jewellery (pictured) is made of silver, usually studded with amber, coral, agate, cornelian, pearls or turquoise. Most pieces are large and dramatic. Necklaces and pendants characteristically feature silver bells, balls, coloured beads, coins and links of intricate chain-mail mesh. Bracelets and anklets are chunky and heavy, some weighing as much as 200 grams. Their surface is usually embossed with calligraphy and can be left unadorned or set with semi-precious stones. Finger, ear, nose and head ornaments are varied in their style, but most have their surfaces decorated with either abstract motifs or flowing curvilinears inspired by the teachings of the Qur'an.
Bedouin women receive their jewellery as a wedding present. Customarily, a prospective bridegroom pays the bride's father a dowry, part of which he uses to buy jewellery for his daughter. Under Muslim law, any jewellery bestowed on the bride in this nuptial settlement becomes her own property and insurance in times of need.
Bedouin women are rarely seen without their bracelets, but some of the necklets and head-ornaments are so cumbersome that they are worn only on special occasions. At such times it is traditional for a woman to wear every finger-ring she owns -- a good assurance against her day being ruined by too much cooking or cleaning!
When a Bedouin woman dies, all her jewellery is either sold or melted down. It is deemed unsuitable for a new bride to possess pieces of jewellery that have belonged to someone else.
Although Bedouin jewellery is still being made, the old craftsmen are retiring and the younger generation turning to more lucrative occupations. This, coupled with the Bedouin's easy access to more fashionable gold jewellery, is the reason for the disappearance of the traditional silver accessories. It is Westerners living in Saudi Arabia and their penchant for hand-crafted items who are largely responsible for keeping the craft alive.
Unfortunately, the quality of workmanship diminishes each year. Not only is the silver content increasingly adulterated with base metals of copper, tin and zinc, but fake gems are often substituted for real ones. However, the ancient designs and techniques used for making the jewellery remain unchanged. Modern manufacturing methods cannot successfully duplicate the intricate filigree and fine detailing of the ornaments, so no matter what the metal content or how worthless the stones, the pieces must still be fashioned by the skilled hands of a professional.
The nomadic tribes rarely include a silversmith. Most skilled jewellers were settled folk living near oases. Although they often aligned themselves with a specific Bedouin group, and catered exclusively to the group's needs, they were not considered part of the tribal structure. It was usual for the jewellers to fashion the same item in varying degrees of silver, thus allowing even the humblest families to bedeck their women in style. These days, only an expert can determine the value or rarity of certain pieces as the silver content varies so drastically. Rarely did a metallurgist hallmark his pieces, but those that have been signed fetch high prices from collectors both overseas and in the Kingdom.
In bygone days, silversmiths squatting over their anvils fashioning metal into jewellery was a common sight in any souq. They heated the metal over a fire in a process called annealing -- as it cooled and became soft, it could be bent into shape or hammered out flat. Embossing and engraving with decorative patterns were done after the metal was annealed. Round objects such as hollow bracelets and large balls were made in halves then soldered together. Soldering is the general method used to assemble the basic parts of the jewellery and also the manner in which gemstones, beads, coins and beads are amalgamated into the finished trinket.
Each semi-precious gemstone is traditionally associated with specific virtues and beliefs -- though many today take these ' beliefs' with the equally traditional 'pinch of salt'. Red stones, whether cornelian, agate, garnet or coral, are the most favoured. Agate is said to make the wearer a more agreeable person, while coral is for wisdom and garnet has the power to alleviate illnesses whose symptoms are bleeding and inflammation. Sapphires, which are extremely rare in Bedouin jewellery settings, are the emblem of chastity and green stones were believed by the ancients to prevent disease. Turquoise, along with amber and coral, have been the most common stones in Arab body adornment for more than two thousand years. Turquoise is said to glow when the wearer is happy but lose its lustre when the wearer is sad.
Today a few hundred herdsmen and their families still roam the Arabian desert living much as their grandfathers did, although the camel has been replaced by a four-wheel drive vehicle as the primary mode of transport. However, many Bedouin have abandoned their nomadic lifestyle altogether and settled in the cities. Their old traditions, such as the famed Bedouin hospitality and ceremonial folk dances have become an integral part of modern Arabian culture but their crafts have been seriously neglected, being now little regarded except on rare ceremonial occasions.
There is little reliably-documented ethnography about Bedouin lifestyle. Because folk tales passed on to new generations are often shrouded in romantic fancy, it is imperative that artistic traditions survive until they can assume their proper importance in the cultural history of the Bedu.
Gahwa -- an age old custom
The preparation, serving and drinking of gahwa -- Arabian coffee -- are each individual rituals derived from Bedouin hospitality; traditions that are still bound today by the same ceremony and etiquette which have ruled for centuries.
According to legend, coffee-drinking began in Arabia almost 12 centuries ago when a goat herder named Khalid noticed that while the afternoon sun made him drowsy, his flock frolicked and gambolled after nibbling at the berries of a certain evergreen bush. The ingenious Khalid ground and boiled the agreeable berries and so invented a phenomenon that has worked its way into the marrow of everyday life.
The gahwa ritual (pictured) starts when the host places a set of four coffee pots, called della, next to an open fire. He pours the coffee beans onto a mahmasa, a shallow, long-handled iron pan which he holds just above the flames. He stirs the roasting beans from time to time with a yad al mahmasa, which is attached by a chain to the small pan. When the beans are cooked they are left to cool before being pulverised with a pestle in a mortar called mahbash. When pounding the beans it is necessary to strike the side of the mortar occasionally with the pestle to free the grounds from sticking together. This noise is considered music and the guests should listen carefully and show appreciation of the host's artistic expression.
The largest della contains the coffee grounds from previous days, so water is poured into the second largest pot, to which the freshly ground coffee is added and then boiled over the fire. Meanwhile, the host pounds the cardamom seeds, and sometimes a pinch of saffron, in the mahbash. These spices go into the third della which is then filled with the freshly brewed coffee from the second pot and brought to the boil again. Finally the gahwa is poured into the fourth and smallest pot ready to serve.
It is always the host's privilege to serve his guests, although a servant may assist by holding the tray of small, china cups without handles. He may pour himself a small cup first in order to taste it, but strict rules of etiquette are observed in the serving order. When only men are present, the most important person in the room is served first. Age takes precedence if there is some doubt as to rank. Until a few years ago men were always served before women, but today that custom is often reversed, particularly if Westerners are among the guests.
The cups are only half filled, but guests may have several refills. It is polite to accept an odd number of cups -- one, three or five. When the guest has finished he should jiggle the empty cup from side to side, indicating to the host that he has had sufficient. To refuse the first round is considered not only bad manners but also an insult to the host.
Gahwa is never sweetened with sugar. Instead, fresh dates are offered as the standard accompaniment to the aromatic brew. The papery-skinned fingers of fruit contain 55% natural sugar which refresh and sweeten the palate between each sip of gahwa.
The proportions of coffee and cardamom in recipes for making gahwa varies considerably from region to region. The Saudia airline offers its passengers a blend made from 25 grams of ground Arabic coffee, 35 grams of crushed cardamom and 1 litre of water. To be served a cup of this unique beverage is more than just refreshment, it is unfailing proof that the guest is still revered and honoured in Saudi Arabia. In offering a cup of gahwa the host is saying Ahlan Wa Sahlan, welcome.
A Middle-Eastern Lilliput
Colonel Darwish Ali Salamah is a self-confessed romantic. When he retired from the Saudi Air Force seventeen years ago, he found that he had time on his hands and art in his soul. "I love to go out into the desert or up into the mountains. I love the moon and the sea. I felt it was better to kill time with something productive,"…. he reflected, as he gazed out over the spectacular grounds of his residence -- spectacular because it is here that he has created a Middle-Eastern Lilliput.
Seventeen years ago, a friend said to him: "You have the eggs of the arts inside you. Now it's time for them to hatch." And hatched they certainly have.
It all began in the colonel's own garden. "I like to work with my hands and I've always had an interest in gardening," he reminisced, instinctively pruning discoloured leaves as we stroll through the grounds of his home. "Why not design my garden differently, I considered. First, I decided to landscape by building a 'mountain' with a waterfall. I laid pipes inside the mountain and had the water flow down the side. Then I started building houses on this mountain. You can see architecture from all over Saudi Arabia in my garden." Indeed, architectural styles from Najd, Asir, Hijaz, Makkah, Madinah, Riyadh and Dhahran juxtapose colourfully within his four walls. Research into the various Saudi architectural styles was inadvertently taking place during the colonel's air force days.
After enlisting in the Saudi Air Force in 1954, Ali Salamah was sent to a flying school in Cairo. One of his Egyptian instructors was a pilot named Hosni Mubarak, now the Egyptian president. On receiving his wings, he returned to the Kingdom where he flew fighters out of Dhahran.
Colonel Salamah's career in the air dealt him one particularly close call. Bad weather and loss of communication during a training flight forced him to ditch the aircraft he was operating in the Arabian Gulf when it ran out of fuel. He only just managed to extricate himself from his harness before the plane disappeared beneath the waves. But, thankfully, the colonel's flying career was not always so hair raising.
"When I was a pilot, I was flying allover the Kingdom. Everywhere I went, I used to love visiting the surrounding countryside. Down south, I would go into the mountains. In Riyadh, I was captivated by the red sands found in that area. I even used to bring some back home with me," he explained. By the time he started building, he already had a wealth of first hand knowledge of the Kingdom's rich architectural heritage. Even the distinctive Madayyen Salah is featured along his side wall.
The construction of these miniatures is as solid as any full size villa. Ali Salamah reinforces concrete with iron bars and netting as he builds. The paint work is equally enduring. Many of his pieces are now over ten years old and show no sign of deterioration from exposure to the elements. To prove their sturdiness, he took a tiny villa -- about 15cm (6 inches) tall and 10cm (4 inches) wide -- and balanced his entire weight on its diminutive roof. Effortlessly, the villa withstood the demonstration.
Although the main thrust of his work is in the Saudi style, Ali Salamah can turn his hand to architecture from all over the world. He once received a commission from an American to reproduce the family home in Philadelphia. "I remember the number of his house was 102. He wanted to surprise his family when they visited the Kingdom, by presenting them with a model of their Philadelphian home," smiled the colonel. "They were amazed to find a replica of their house all the way over here. They took it home with them."
Not everything Ali Salamah builds is purely ornamental. His swimming pool is surrounded by plants housed in pots, which are works of art in themselves. Villas 70cm tall double decoratively as planters. And in a fanciful departure from his typical style, he has constructed mini cars which also sprout trees and shrubbery.
The colonel is receptive to taking on projects large or small. "My dream is to construct a complete town along the lines of Disneyland. I could include all Saudi regions, other Middle Eastern countries and even international theme areas," said Ali Salamah -- adding, wishfully, "Should an entrepreneur wish to sponsor such a project, I would be delighted to work with him."
What began as a hobby for this retiree, has burgeoned into a fully-fledged profession. Darwish Ali Salamah has already fulfilled some of his dreams. "I never imagined my hobby would grow into such a large scale project," he mused, as he ambled through his unique grounds.
As if on cue, the setting sun split into rays through the fronds of a date palm spotlighting the turrets he had constructed so many years ago -- yet still fresh and thriving, just like the colonel.
Hajj -- the pilgrimage to Makkah
Every Muslim's submission to the will of Allah is based on the five 'pillars of Islam', as proclaimed by His Prophet Mohammed (may peace be upon Him):
The first pillar is Sha'haddah, the profession of faith: "There is no god but Allah, and Mohammed is His Prophet".
The second pillar is Salah or prayer, which provides the Muslim with direct communion with Allah five times a day.
The third is Zakah, the obligatory payment of alms to the poor.
The fourth is Siyam, the obligatory fasting during daylight hours throughout the Holy month of Ramadan (when the Holy Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet).
Last is the fifth pillar: Al-Hajj, the pilgrimage to Makkah and its holy places during Dhul Hijjah, the closing month of the Islamic year.
The Hajj differs considerably from Umrah, which is an individual act of pilgrimage to Makkah made by Muslims at any other time of the year. Hajj is the worldwide gathering of the family of Islam in a devout and lengthy act of corporate worship, regardless of social status, wealth, nationality or colour. It is an invitation open to every Muslim, with all rivalries forgotten, and with full safety guaranteed for every pilgrim.
To symbolise the brotherhood of Islam, each pilgrim approaches the holy places dressed exactly alike: an unseamed length of white cloth girded around the waist with a cord and another draped across the left shoulder.
The pilgrim's aim is to reach the Holy Kaaba in Makkah's Grand or Inviolable Mosque, and the nearby landmarks honoured for their association with Ibrahim (Abraham), his wife Haggar, their son Ismail (Ishmael), and the Prophet Mohammed.
The Kaaba is, quite literally, the focus of Islam, as it is the direction every Muslim must face each time he prays. A simple cube-shaped building, 50 feet (15 metres) high, it is revered as the House of God, and was built, on the order of Allah, by Ibrahim and Ismail. One corner holds the famous Black Stone (Al-Hajar al-Aswad), protected by a huge silver frame.
The Kaaba is draped with a black silk covering, the Kiswa, beautifully embroidered with Qur'anic texts in gold and silver. This is replaced every year in a special ceremony which takes place one month before the Hajj.
The central role of the Kaaba in Islamic pilgrimage is ordained in the Qur'an:
"When we prepared for Ibrahim the place of the House we said: 'Worship none beside me. Keep My House clean for those who walk around it and those who stand upright or kneel in worship.' Exhort all men to make the Pilgrimage. They will come to you on foot and on the backs of swift camels from every distant quarter; they will come to avail themselves of many a benefit and to pronounce on the appointed days the name of Allah over the beasts which he has given them. Eat of their flesh yourselves, and feed the poor and unfortunate. Then let the pilgrims prepare themselves, make their vows, and circle the Ancient House. Such is Allah's commandment". (22:22/29-30)
The major rites of Hajj which are performed by Muslims today were established in the days of the Prophet Ibrahim, who built the Kaaba and made Makkah a place of pilgrimage. These rites include Tawaf, the sevenfold circling of the Kaaba, originating from Allah's command that Ibrahim take his wife Haggar and their son Ismail into the desert to entrust them to the protection of Allah. In a desperate search for water, Haggar ran seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah before beseeching the help of Allah, whereupon the well of Zam Zam burst forth at her feet. Hajj pilgrims have ever since evoked this story in their sevenfold running between Safa and Marwah. This is known as the rite of Saiy ('striving').
The abandoning of Haggar and Ismail was only one of Allah's many ways of testing Ibrahim's faith. Others are remembered by the three rocky pillars at Mina, about 3.7 miles/6km east of Makkah. Each pilgrim collects seven stones on the slopes of Muzdalifah hill, and uses them in a ritual stoning of the three pillars, which are known as 'satans'. The ritual is known as Jamarat and follows the sacrifice of a sheep by every pilgrim who can afford it. The sacrifice takes place in memory of that offered by Ibrahim at Allah's command.
The most important ritual of Hajj takes place at Arafat, 10 miles/16km from the Kaaba in Makkah. This is Wukuf, when the pilgrims spend the best part of a night and a day standing in prayer on the Arafat plain. Here they also meditate and hear sermons, according to the command of the Prophet.
Every year, pilgrims begin to arrive in Saudi Arabia about two months before the beginning of Dhul Hijjah. Most of them arrive in Jeddah, whose seaport has received pilgrims by ship for many centuries from the furthest corners of the Islamic world. More recently, the superb, custom-built Hajj Terminal at King Abdul Aziz International Airport (KAIA) has given an enormous boost to the flow of pilgrim traffic since its opening in 1981.
Pilgrims must register with a mutawwif or pilgrims' guide and, although pilgrims may prefer to perform their Hajj on their own, the mutawwif is responsible for them during their stay in the Kingdom. He plays an important role in arranging accommodation, transport, food and water.
After registration, pilgrims are transferred to the Pilgrims' City at KAIA, or to another at Jeddah seaport, where there are facilities for short-term accommodation.
The usual form of transport from Jeddah to Makkah is by bus. The Government Pilgrims' Transportation Service is just one of the many facilities funded by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for use by pilgrims. Care of pilgrims is a solemn duty commanded by the Prophet for all Muslims, a duty which is most proudly and generously upheld by the Kingdom today with the provision of more facilities every year. Many of these facilities are funded by the King himself, one of the most important of which is the distribution of millions of bags of iced water prepared, at the King's expense, at a special factory in Makkah. Other services which are of great benefit to pilgrims include mobile facilities for banking and telecommunications.
Quarters are assigned to the pilgrim when he first arrives in Makkah. Then his first duty is to enter the Grand Mosque and circle the Kaaba in the Tawaf of 'Arrival' (qudum). The beginning of the month Dhul Hijjah sees the erecting of enormous 'tent cities' at Mina and Arafat, in preparation for the commencement of Hajj on the eighth day of the month. This is known as Yaum at-tarwiya, the 'Day of Watering', and it is on this day that the pilgrim prepares his own water store for the succeeding days of the pilgrimage. He then journeys to Mina to spend the night of Yaum at-tarwiya in the tent city there, and on the next day -- the ninth day of Dhul Hijjah -- the congregation of Islam musters at Arafat.
The 'Halt' or 'Standing' at Arafat (Wukuf) is the focal point of the Hajj. The Prophet ordered that all Muslims must journey there in an orderly and peaceful manner, to assemble by noon. Between midday and sunset the massed pilgrims stand at Arafat in joint prayer and meditation before walking from Arafat to the hill of Muzdalifah at sunset. The most devout prefer to make this procession on foot, but many choose motor transport instead.
At Muzdalifah, the pilgrims join in the evening prayers, before gathering the pebbles with which they will ritually stone the 'satans' at Mina on the following day.
The tenth day of Dhul Hijjah -- Yaum-an-Nahr, the 'Day of Sacrifice' can, in effect take up to three days, due to the vast crowds gathering around the 'satans'. Sacrifices begin after the Eid prayers in the morning and here the mutawwifs are of great service, helping pilgrims arrange the buying and slaughtering of their sacrificial animals.
After the sacrifice, pilgrims perform Tawaf Ifada, the ceremonial hair-cutting or head shaving. The pilgrim then emerges from the consecrated state of ihram which he entered on reaching miqat at the outset of his pilgrimage. Two or three more days -- the Ayyam at-tashriq -- will be required for the pilgrim to complete his Jamarat, and once this rite has been completed the pilgrim returns to Makkah to perform a farewell Tawaf of the Kaaba. He will then either head homewards via Jeddah, or will perhaps travel on to Al Madinah to visit the Mosque of the Prophet.
The Prophet's Farewell Pilgrimage in the year 632CE is said to have been attended by 200,000 Muslims and the annual numbers of pilgrims saw very little increase for over 13 centuries. Pilgrim access to Makkah was restricted to travel by ship to Jeddah and overland by foot and by camel. Official figures for the 1950 Hajj indicate only 250,000 pilgrims, but over the past 30 years, and more particularly in the past 15, pilgrim traffic has undergone a dramatic increase. The main reason for this has been the parallel growth of Saudia, the Kingdom's national airline, and the enormous boost to pilgrim air transport afforded by low-cost flights. Custom-built air transport facilities such as the Hajj Terminal at Jeddah's KAIA, the excellent modern road network developed in the Kingdom over the same period, and the expansion of port facilities at Jeddah have all contributed to ease of access for today's pilgrims.
Every year the Kingdom takes great pains to meet the needs of its pilgrims. Months of detailed planning, and an army of administrative staff, help keep the millions of pilgrims moving smoothly to their holy destinations, speeding them safely on their way once the pilgrimage is over. Thus, more than 1,300 years after the Prophet bequeathed the duty of Hajj to the faithful of Islam, the spirit of the world's greatest annual pilgrimage is more alive than ever. In the words of the Prophet Ibrahim, as quoted in the Holy Qur'an:
"God, I have settled some of my offspring in a barren valley near Your Sacred House, so that they may observe true worship. Put in the hearts of men kindness towards them, and provide them with the earth's fruits, so that they may give thanks. God, You have knowledge of all that we hide and all that we reveal; nothing in heaven or earth is hidden from Allah. Praise be to Allah who has given me Ismail and Ishaq in my old age! All prayers are heard by Him. God, make me and my descendants steadfast in prayer. God, accept my prayer." (14:32/38)
Tents of the Arabian Desert
The tent has been a dwelling-place for man since the dawn of history. Varying geographical features and differences in the culture of its dwellers may have altered its design, but its essential qualities are unchanging: a tent needs to be flexible, and it must be lightweight.
The Bedouin of the Arabian Desert uses a black tent known as the beit al-sha'r, or 'house of hair'. These tents are woven from the hair of domesticated sheep and goats, and their design is thought to have originated in Mesopotamia. The animal hair is woven into strips of coarse cloth known as fala'if, which are then sewn together. The natural colour of the animal is retained -- mainly black goat's hair, with occasional addition of sheep's wool, which gives the tent a streaked, brown/black appearance.
The size of the tent depends on the importance of its owner, or on the size of his family. An average family would use a tent made up of narrow strips, each seven and a half metre long, supported by two tent poles. An important personage, such as a tribal sheikh, would have a more imposing dwelling, made of about six broad strips, each about twenty metres long, supported by four tent poles. Anything larger than this would not be easily transportable.
When the strips of cloth are sewn together, they make up one long rectangle. This is then raised up and supported on tent poles, known as amdan, with tent ropes (atnab) being used to keep the sides taut. A brightly decorated curtain, or qata, hangs inside across the middle of the tent to divide it into a men's and a women's section. The women's section is the larger of the two and is never seen by any man except the owner of the tent. Ruaq, or tent flaps, are long pieces of material attached to the tent sides. These hang down like a curtain at the back of the tent and are sufficiently long to wrap around the entire tent and enclose it at night.
The life of a tent cloth is about five or six years, with sections being added and renewed periodically, as they wear out. The spinning of the goat's hair is done by the women of the tribe on a simple drop spindle or maghzal. The thread is then woven on a horizontal ground loom (natui), which is extremely portable and can easily be rolled up and carried when it is time for the tribe to move on. An ancient measurement is used for the width of the loom, making the cloth strips of a standard breadth. This measurement is based on the length of the forearm.
The process of sewing the strips together is undertaken by groups of women working together, and is an occasion for celebration. The sewing is a skilled job, as the seams need to be strong and durable. Thread made from black goat's hair is used for this task.
The tent cloth is woven loosely to allow heat dispersal. Although the black colour absorbs the heat, it is still between 10 and 15-degree cooler inside the tent than outside. The tent provides shade from the hot sun, as well as insulation on cold desert nights. During rainstorms, the yarn swells up, thus closing the holes in the weave and preventing leaks. The goat's hair is naturally oily, which has an added effect of repelling the water droplets, so the tent's occupants can remain comparatively dry.
The flattened shape of the tent roof is aerodynamically designed so that it cannot be blown away by sudden gusts, or by more prolonged windy conditions common in the desert. The exceptional length of the hempen tent ropes also assists wind resistance, as the ropes act as shock absorbers. An additional advantage of these long ropes is that they can act as trip wires to protect the tent's occupants from unwelcome intruders.
It is the head of the family who directs the pitching of the tent, but the job is mainly done by the women of the family. The tent's owner chooses a suitable spot, on clear, level ground, often near the high-banked sides of a dry watercourse. The tent is unrolled and pitched so that one of its long sides faces the direction of the wind, and the men's section is always situated at the eastern end facing towards Makkah.
Tent furnishings are extremely simple, consisting of carpets and mattresses (dawashaks) spread on the floor, with pillows (masanad) placed on either side of the owner's camel saddle, so that guests can sit in comfort. Hammocks may be stretched between the tent poles. The women's section contains food stores, cooking utensils and spindles, together with the camel litters in which the women ride.
Marco Polo once described a tent used by Kublai Khan on a hunting trip. Its ropes were made of silk and it was lined with ermines and sables and coated with the skins of lions. The interior was large enough to accommodate 10,000 soldiers and their officers. Impressive indeed and a far cry from the humbler version used by the Bedouin people. However, for practicality, durability and adherence to tradition, the beit al-sha'r, or 'house of hair' is a winning design proved by centuries of use.
I hope it's good enough.. good luck
History
Nomads & the birth of Islam
The Arabian Peninsula -- including Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, the Sultanate of Oman, Yemen and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia -- had been practicing agricultural, herding and hunting cultures for thousands of years.
Because they lived on important ancient trade routes, the ancestors of today's Saudi Arabians were influenced by such varying civilizations as Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Byzantium, India, Persia and China.
The Holy Quran was revealed to the Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him) in the western Arabian cities of Makkah and Madinah beginning about 610 AD.
The birth of the new faith of Islam was an important historical event. Inspired by their new religion, the Arabs expanded from Arabia, spreading Islam and the Arabic language as far west as the Atlantic Ocean and as far east as central Asia.
The Islamic civilization remained vigorous for centuries, providing stability and advancing human knowledge when most of western ****pe was in a state of chaos and superstition known to historians as the Dark Ages. In the 13th century, the Mongol invasions dealt a devastating blow to the Arabs' eastern lands and their empire began to decline.
King Abdul Aziz
When King Abdul Aziz and Sixty men headed for Riuadh in June 1901, his sole motive was to restore the purity and primacy of Islam rather than any worldly gain. He was inspired by the history of his ancestors and spared no efforts I his stgruggle to regain his ancestors rule. The story fo his recapute of Riyadh is well-know. It was in fact the point of departure from which he began his campaign. His battles and conquests were many including the recapture of Jeddah and Madinah. He spent 31 years in continuous struggle from the time he left Riyadh until he succeeded in reuniting the Kingdom under the system of Tawheed (monotheism).
The history of modern Saudi Arabia begins in the year 1902 when Abdul Aziz Al-Sa'ud and a band of his followers captured the city of Riyadh, returning it to the control of his family.
Abdul Aziz was born about 1880 and spent the early years of his life with his father in exile in Kuwait. After the capture of Riyadh, he spent the next twelve years consolidating his conquests in the area around Riyadh and the eastern part of the country from where the Turks were expelled.
The Arab tribes had never liked the Turks and they were only too willing to listen to a new ruler whose ambitions were aided considerably by the troubles of the Ottoman Empire.
On the 2nd of September 1933, the lands under the control of Abdul Aziz were renamed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and in 1936 a treaty was signed with Yemen marking the southern borders of the Kingdom.
The main preoccupations of Abdul Aziz were the consolidation of his power and the restoration of law and order to all parts of his recently created kingdom. To these ends, he developed a system whereby every Sheikh was responsible for his own tribe under the authority of the king who was empowered to intervene to impose law and order. It was clearly understood that internal anarchy within the Kingdom could quickly lead to foreign intervention. And all were agreed that this was unacceptable.
The growing state
King Abdul Aziz died in November 1953 after more than half a century as leader and king. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Saud bin Abdul Aziz, who devoted a great deal of time to fostering the Kingdom's relations with its neighbours.
His reign saw solid achievements in the field of education, social services as well as the expansion of the Holy Places in Makkah and Madinah. There were, however, some financial difficulties during Saud's kingship which resulted in the Crown Prince, Faisal bin Abdul Aziz, introducing austerity measures which were aimed at putting the Kingdom on a solid financial base.
King Saud abdicated after 11 years in favour of his brother the Crown Prince. King Faisal continued the programmes of reorganisation and reform, following the policy of 'change -- but slowly'. This of course created a firm basis upon which the central government and administration rested.
The main objective of King Faisal's reign was development of the Kingdom's resources. The First Development Plan was introduced during his reign, in 1969/70. Although there were constraints within the plan, it did clearly indicate the Kingdom's importance as a leading financial power in the Islamic world and also in the international economy as a major oil producer.
Boom & dissent
It was during the late King Khalid's reign that Saudi Arabia enjoyed the prosperity and enormous wealth of the so-called 'boom years'. The physical growth of the Kingdom's cities during those years was amazing.
It was also during King Khalid's reign that the first serious evidence of public dissension and disagreement surfaced within Saudi society. In November 1979 several hundred armed radicals seized control of the Grand Mosque in Makkah and used the public address system to denounce the Royal family and the country's rush to modernisation. The people of the country, however, failed to support them and government troops were involved in a 10-day operation to regain control of the mosque. At the end of the operation, 117 of the radicals had died and 63 were captured by government troops. Six weeks later, they were executed in various cities throughout the Kingdom.
King Fahad and the Gulf War
King Khalid died in June 1982 and was succeeded by Crown Prince Fahad bin Abdul Aziz.
King Fahad was well-versed in the arts of government as he had served as the country's first Minister of Education and as King Khalid had been in poor health for much of his reign, Fahad had ruled in all but name.
King Fahad's reign was marked by continuing development within the country and the infrastructure. On the political front, the open hostility from Iran toward Saudi Arabia led the government to strengthen its ties of defence with the USA, Britain and France.
Within days of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in late summer 1990, King Fahad allowed US troops into the Kingdom to defend the country. In November 1990, King Fahad announced that plans were being made for the formation of a Consultative Council; there was some feeling that this was done in response to criticism that he had not consulted widely enough before allowing foreign troops into the Kingdom. In any case, in March 1992, the King announced that the Consultative Council would be appointed by year's end and he also made its duties clear.
Like other such creations in the Gulf states, the Council is a purely consultative body with no legislative powers whatever. Its formation, however, simply puts an official stamp on the long-standing system of consultation which has long been a mark of Arab politics and society.
Jeddah: growth of the glittering city
Jeddah, the largest city in Saudi Arabia's Western Province, once nestled sleepily on the shores of the Red Sea, with no premonition of its prestigious future. Today it hums, glitters and resounds with industry, technology and cosmopolitan human life.
The origin of the city's name poses an interesting dilemma for etymologists. Juddah (pronounced Jiddah) in Arabic means seashore, which seems logical enough, but the school of thought which prefers Jaddah or grandmother, is given credence by the traditional location of Eve's tomb within the city. Jeddah is, in fact, incorrect, but is popularly used by most non-Saudis living there.
The story of Jeddah is one of expansion on a colossal scale. This expansion has been both rapid and recent, mostly within the past 20 years. A look at the figures is staggering. In 1947, the city encompassed no more than one square kilometre, and its population was about 30,000. Now, with a population of approximately one and a half million, Jeddah occupies an area of 560 square kilometres and stretches for 80km north to south along its coastline. Between the boom years of 1974 and 1980, the population of Jeddah doubled, and statistical experts predict that this figure will have doubled again by the end of the century.
Jeddah is the Kingdom's principal seaport, the original gateway to Makkah and Madinah for pilgrims arriving by ship. Recently, the influx of pilgrims from abroad has increased dramatically with the building of Jeddah's International Airport and its architecturally unique Hajj terminal. Today, Jeddah welcomes 97% of all pilgrims arriving by sea and 98% of those arriving by air. This places huge demands on consumer goods, building materials, hotel accommodation, and technical and administrative services, thus providing an enormous boost to the city's economic prosperity.
Jeddah has grown from humble origins. It began about 2,500 years ago as a tiny fishing settlement, established by the Quada's tribe. In AD647, Caliph Osman Ibn Affan chose Jeddah as the main port for the city of Makkah, and it became known as Bilad al Kanasil -- the City of Consulates. In the 16th century, the Ottomans built a stone wall around the town, in order to fortify it against attacks from the Portuguese. Originally, four gates were set in these walls, Bab Sherif opening towards the south, Bab Makkah facing east, Bab Madinah in the north wall and a west gate facing the Red Sea.
Bab Jadeed, the new gate, was not built until the early 1900s and was wide enough to accommodate the motor car. Sentries were posted at these gates, which were closed at dusk. Entering the town after dark would, no doubt have proved a challenging business.
Jeddah remained a fortified, walled town for centuries of Ottoman influence and was not released from Turkish rule until 1915. Further evidence of Turkish influence can be seen in Jeddah's architecture. The buildings of old Jeddah were tall and graceful, constructed of coral limestone and decorated with intricately beautiful wooden facades, known as rawasheen (singular roshan). These were designed not only to break up the sun's glare, but also to take advantage of the cooling sea breezes when the inner windows were opened. One cannot help but feel that, with the enclosure of the town within high, fortified walls, the sea breezes may not have stood much chance of reaching Jeddah's early inhabitants; hence their penchant for building their houses tall and for sleeping on the roofs on hot summer nights.
Some of these beautiful old houses still exist in Jeddah, if you know where to look. However, their number is sadly declining and many are in a poor state of repair. An extensive renovation programme, run by the Historical Area Preservation Department, was set up in 1990 and aims to protect the city's architecture and heritage. The department now employs a staff of over fifty people and organises digs, tours and local research.
In bygone days, the streets of Old Jeddah were twisting, unpaved and haphazard, flanked by closely-packed buildings. A thick layer of sand covered these streets, packed solid by numerous tramping feet. Mingling with the strolling inhabitants, water carriers and other street vendors, camel caravans once plodded their way through the wider thoroughfares, while goats and donkeys wandered in the narrow alleys.
The souq was the heartbeat of Old Jeddah and is still an exciting and picturesque part of today's city. In those far-off days open-fronted shops grouped together according to trade; an old Oriental bazaar tradition, which has continued, to some extent, into modern life. Wares were displayed in the street under palm-leafed canopies, sheltering traders from the relentless sun -- a far cry from the modern-day comforts of air-conditioning in the luxurious shopping malls of the 1990s.
When the Suez Canal opened in 1869, Jeddah became one of the main ports on the trade route between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian and Pacific Oceans. As a result, the city's wealth increased dramatically, and Jeddah's inhabitants became more cosmopolitan. ****pean diplomatic legations were established on the northern side of the city, and rich merchants began to build their family homes here. Sailors awaiting the departure of their ships on the spice routes often used their craft skills to decorate the facades of these dwellings. Pilgrims often brought goods from their native lands to sell in Jeddah, and those who could not afford the homeward journey often stayed on and settled here. These men sometimes married into a local family and became permanent residents of Jeddah.
Modernisation of the city forged ahead with the passing of the years. By 1929 the first house of reinforced concrete had been built; less attractive than the delicate coral limestone, perhaps, but certainly a more durable alternative. 1940 saw the advent of electricity, 1948 marked the arrival of the first airfield, and in 1965 the first automatic telephone system was introduced.
The reign of King Abdul Aziz and the unification of the Kingdom brought new stability to Jeddah, and its enclosing walls became obsolete. Expansion had become essential, too, and the city walls were therefore demolished. An interesting local story tells how the broken rocks from the demolished wall were used as fill for the new pier in Jeddah harbour, which was built to enable larger steamers to come alongside. The story is probably apocryphal -- a pity, if so, as there is a certain gentle irony in the idea that the rocks once used to discourage invading forces are now helping visitors to come ashore.
Jeddah's building boom began in the Seventies and still continues at a breathtaking pace. New shopping centres, office building and apartment blocks are springing up everywhere. Stretches of former desert have now become part of an expanding, lush green city. Jeddah has successfully managed to combine the dignity and traditions of the past with the dynamism of the modern business world.
Geography
Introduction
Occupying four-fifths of the Arabian peninsula, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the Middle East. In south-western Asia, the country is at the crossroads of three continents: ****pe, Asia and Africa.
On the west it is bordered by the Red Sea and on the east by the Arabian Gulf. To the south there are borders with Yemen and the Sultanate of Oman. To the east lie the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and the island state of Bahrain. In the north Saudi Arabia has borders with Kuwait, Iraq and Jordan.
The country's area is estimated to be some 2,331,000 sq km (900,000 sq mi). "Estimated" is the correct word, as only the borders in the north, the border with Qatar and a part of the border with Yemen are precisely demarcated.
There is a 7000 sq km (2700 sq mi) neutral zone between Saudi Arabia and Iraq in which no permanent structures or military establishments may be put; bedouin from both countries have access to the area. The zone is divided equally according to a 1975 agreement.
Between Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, there is also a divided zone covering about 5770 sq km (2230 sq mi). Saudi Arabia administers the south-ern half but the oil revenues from the area is split between the two countries.
The country has a varied topography including -- besides the well-known deserts -- a green, mountainous area in its south-western corner.
Despite appearances, there is considerable life in the desert, especially after winter rains. Plants such as desert camomile, scarlet pimpernel, heliotrope and wild iris are common as well as small animals such as lizards, porcupines, hedgehogs and rabbits.
Saudi Arabia's terrain is varied but on the whole it presents a barren and harsh appearance with salt flats, gravel plains and sand dunes but few lakes or permanent streams. In the south of the country is the famous Empty Quarter (in Arabic, Rub al Khali), the largest continuous sand desert in the world. It is linked to another large sandy desert, the Nafud, in the north of the country. In the south-west, there are mountains rising to over 9,000 feet and rain is not uncommon there.
Climate
The climate of Saudi Arabia varies from one province to another. The Kingdom lies in the tropics, and the nationwide average temperature is 18°C (64°F). Local average vary considerably from 24°C (75°F) in the Western Province, rising as we descend towards the southwest until it reaches 28°C (82°F) in Jeddah and 30°C (86°F) in Jizan. In the northwest, the average temperature is 22°C in Tabouk and 28°C in Madinah, which is 850 meters above the sea level. In the Asir region in the southwest, the average temperature is only 19°C because of the high altitude. The central province, which is surrounded by desert, has an average of 25°C for Riyadh, 21°C in Hai'l and 23°C in Qaseem. In Dhaharan, the eastern Province, the temperature is an average of 26°C. Apart from topographical factors, Saudi Arabia's climate is also affected by tropical winds which cause monsoons the west and southwest. These occur during the summer months. In the south, tropical continental winds blow particularly in winter often accompanied by sandstorms.
Saudi Arabia is one of the driest countries in the world, with rainfall averaging less than 5 inches per year. Marked seasons, in the ****pean or American sense, do not exist.
The climate is principally determined by the southerly shift in wind patterns during the winter months which brings rain and cool weather.
Other factors such as latitude, proximity to the sea and altitude, also affect the climate. In the Empty Quarter, the great southeastern sand desert, ten years may pass with no rain. The Asir Highlands in the south receive rainfall due to the monsoon that may exceed 255mm (10 inches) per year. Jeddah, on the shores of the Red Sea, has a hot and humid climate year-round. Taif, on the other hand, and Abha, enjoy much more temperate weather.
Summer is hot with temperatures in some areas reaching 49°C (120°F). Winter is cooler with an average temperature of 23°C (74°F) in Jeddah and 14°C (58°F) in Riyadh. Winter temperatures drop below freezing in the central and northern parts of the country and snow and ice sometimes occur in the higher elevations in the south-west.
In areas where there is little ground cover, a northwesterly wind blows for most of the summer months and may, especially in the eastern part of the country, whip up violent sandstorms.
Between October and May is generally pleasant with cool nights and sunny days. Night temperatures in the coastal areas may dip into the 40s (Fahrenheit). From April to November, on the other hand, temperatures are considerably higher and life without air-conditioning would be very unpleasant indeed.
The Arabian oryx
The Arabian oryx is a medium-sized, white antelope, with black patches on its face, and dark legs. It stands about one metre high and has two gently curving horns, which are about 50cm in length. Its grace and beauty are legendary.
Before the beginning of the nineteenth century, oryx were abundant in all parts of the Arabian Peninsula. Since the advent of twentieth-century weapons and modes of transport, however, this beautiful animal has been extensively hunted until near-extinction. The few remaining animals retreated into the Rub' Al-Khali (the Empty Quarter) desert to escape from the hunter's gun.
In centuries past, images of the oryx probably gave rise to its more famous mythical counterpart -- the unicorn. This beast of legend had a horse's body and a single, long, spiral horn projecting from the middle of its forehead. A side view of the oryx, when seen from a distance, would seem to strengthen this image of legend, as the two, finely carved horns may then seem to merge into one.
To many western writers, Arabia was seen as a land of charm and mystery. Because so little was known about it, travelers and poets often used it as the site of strange, mythological happenings. In the thirteenth century, Garillaume of Normandy wrote in his book, Le Besteare Divin, the now famous legend of the unicorn and the virgin -- how the beast could not be captured unless it laid its head in a damsel's lap. Only then would it lose its great ferocity and allow itself to be captured by the hunter.
Arab poets, too, extolled the beauty and grace of the oryx, often using these qualities metaphorically to compare the animal with a beautiful woman. The Bedouin believed that if a man captured an oryx, he could in some way capture for himself its virtues of strength, courage and endurance. There can be little doubt that there is something compelling about this beast, which makes it the source of such a wealth of poetry and legend.
But, what of the real oryx? Thriving for many centuries in the Arabian desert, it is perfectly adapted to withstand an inhospitable climate and barren landscape. It has evolved the ability to go without water entirely and, if necessary, can survive for years without drinking. The animal satisfies its thirst by licking early morning dew which gathers on the leaves of desert plants, and by obtaining moisture from the plants themselves. Desert grasses, tamarisk, broomrape and desert gourd are all sources of food and liquid for the oryx. On the rare occasions of desert rainfall, an oryx herd can detect the rains from a far distance and can easily find the rainy area. Some zoologists believe that the body of the oryx contains a kind of built-in 'radar system', which enables it to do this.
The oryx has never been an easy animal to capture and has always presented a great challenge to the hunter. It proved difficult to track in the vast, empty desert landscape and, without the benefit of modern transport, capture and conveyance of the carcass were almost impossible. There was virtually no wastage on the rare occasions when an oryx was successfully hunted. Every part of the animal, including horns, fat, skin and blood, served a useful purpose. Oryx meat was particularly prized, as it was believed to possess medicinal properties.
By 1972, the oryx in its wild state had been completely wiped out. Extinction would have been inevitable, had it not been the efforts of an enlightened King and a far-sighted team of conservationists. A few animals had been rescued and bred in captivity in American and ****pean zoos. Here the oryx thrived and numbers increased. Under the auspices of the late King Khaled Ibn Abd al-Aziz, the oryx was reintroduced into its homeland a few years later. In Jaddat al-Harasis, the oryx's last known habitat, a small herd was set free, and is now protected. Allowed to roam free and unharmed, the herd continues to thrive and increase in number.
Zoos in Arab countries and in the West are also ensuring the continued existence of the oryx. On the late King Khaled's farm in Riyadh, on various farms in Qatar and Al-'Ain Zoo in the Emirates, these beautiful animals are doing well. As it continues to flourish under protection, the future of the Arabian oryx looks brighter today than at any other time this century
Culture
People
The overwhelming majority of Saudi Arabians are Arabs, descended from the indigenous tribes and still today maintaining tribal affiliation. Along the Arabian Gulf coast, there are some Iranians.
The number of expatriate workers is large with the bulk coming from Egypt, Pakistan, India and the Philippines. The economy is almost totally dependent upon foreign labour, though efforts are beginning to be made to lessen this dependence.
Religion
Islam along with Judaism and Christianity is one of the world's three great monotheistic religions. Islam is the official religion of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its tenets are enshrined as law. The public practice of any religion other than Islam is not allowed in Saudi Arabia.
About 85% of the population are Sunni Muslims and the remaining 15%, primarily on the east coast, are Shiite Muslims. The ***es are strictly segregated in public although educational and job opportunities for women are increasing.
The followers of Islam, called Muslims, believe in one God -- Allah in Arabic -- and that Mohammed (peace be upon him) was His last prophet.
Today there are over one billion Muslims in the world and they include many races and cultures on every continent. Saudi Arabia occupies a special place in the Islamic world as the birthplace and heartland of Islam.
It is toward the sacred Ka'abah -- a black cube-shaped stone in the square of the Holy Mosque in Makkah -- that Muslims turn in prayer five times a day. Every Muslim must pray these five prayers and, in Saudi Arabia, offices and shops are obliged to close during those times. Exact prayer times are published in daily newspapers and occur at dawn (fajr), midday (dhuhr), mid-afternoon (asir), sunset (maghreb) and evening (isha).
The Holy Quran is the sacred scripture of Islam, revealed by Allah to His Prophet Mohammed. Islam consists of adherence to the Quran and the duty to believe and follow what are called the Five Pillars of Islam:
The First Pillar is the profession of faith -- shahada: There is no god but Allah and Mohammed is the messenger of Allah.
The Second Pillar is prayer -- salah. Prayer is to be performed according to prescribed rituals at appointed times each day. At the time of prayer, the individual must face the Holy Ka'abah in Makkah.
The Third Pillar is almsgiving -- zakat. This mandates payment of a fixed proportion of a Muslim's possessions for the welfare of the entire community and especially for its neediest members.
The Fourth Pillar is fasting -- sawm. During the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, Ramadan, Muslims must abstain from all food, drink and ***ual activity from dawn to sunset.
The Fifth Pillar is the pilgrimage to Makkah -- hajj. At least once in a lifetime, Muslims should make the journey to Makkah. In fact large numbers of Muslims from all over the world come to Makkah each year in the performance of Hajj. Saudi Arabia dedicates considerable resources, both human and financial, to enable these Muslims to perform their Hajj in comfort and safety.
To the people of Saudi Arabia, Makkah, the birthplace of Islam and the prophet Mohammed, as well as Madina, where the Prophet's Mosque and his burial place are located, are holy cities. And because of this, none except Muslims may enter these two cities.
Recognizing the unique and historic traditions represented by these two holy sites, King Fahad has adopted the official title of Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques as an expression of his deep sense of responsibility to Islam and to all Muslims
Language
Arabic is a Semitic language. It is spoken and understood in various forms by millions of people throughout the Middle East and beyond. It is one of the official languages of the United Nations.
Classical Arabic, the language of the Quran, is used only in writing and rarely in speech. A standardized modern Arabic is used for newspapers, television and conversation with local variations.
Arabic is written in a flowing cursive style from right to left. The alphabet consists of 28 letters, all consonants. Vowels are expressed either by positioned points or by inserting letters in positions where they would normally not occur. The letters take different shapes depending on their place in words. The appearance and guttural sounds make it seem a complex language; however, basic conversational Arabic is not difficult to learn.
Bedouin jewellery
Petrological discoveries in Saudi Arabia have revealed rock face carvings that show human forms, lavishly adorned with bracelets, anklets, earrings, pendants and head ornaments. Although these rock sketches are more than seven thousand years old, they portray styles bearing a strong resemblance to the bold, distinctive designs of today's Bedouin jewellery. Admittedly, few of the pieces currently around are more than 50 years old, but the origin of the patterns and shapes is deeply-rooted in ancient times. Long-dead civilisations such as the Roman and Byzantine empires, Egyptian pharaohs, ancient Persians, Phoenicians, Turkish sultans -- all have been sources of inspiration for the exotic and ornate pieces of jewellery in the Bedouin range.
Traditionally, Bedouin jewellery (pictured) is made of silver, usually studded with amber, coral, agate, cornelian, pearls or turquoise. Most pieces are large and dramatic. Necklaces and pendants characteristically feature silver bells, balls, coloured beads, coins and links of intricate chain-mail mesh. Bracelets and anklets are chunky and heavy, some weighing as much as 200 grams. Their surface is usually embossed with calligraphy and can be left unadorned or set with semi-precious stones. Finger, ear, nose and head ornaments are varied in their style, but most have their surfaces decorated with either abstract motifs or flowing curvilinears inspired by the teachings of the Qur'an.
Bedouin women receive their jewellery as a wedding present. Customarily, a prospective bridegroom pays the bride's father a dowry, part of which he uses to buy jewellery for his daughter. Under Muslim law, any jewellery bestowed on the bride in this nuptial settlement becomes her own property and insurance in times of need.
Bedouin women are rarely seen without their bracelets, but some of the necklets and head-ornaments are so cumbersome that they are worn only on special occasions. At such times it is traditional for a woman to wear every finger-ring she owns -- a good assurance against her day being ruined by too much cooking or cleaning!
When a Bedouin woman dies, all her jewellery is either sold or melted down. It is deemed unsuitable for a new bride to possess pieces of jewellery that have belonged to someone else.
Although Bedouin jewellery is still being made, the old craftsmen are retiring and the younger generation turning to more lucrative occupations. This, coupled with the Bedouin's easy access to more fashionable gold jewellery, is the reason for the disappearance of the traditional silver accessories. It is Westerners living in Saudi Arabia and their penchant for hand-crafted items who are largely responsible for keeping the craft alive.
Unfortunately, the quality of workmanship diminishes each year. Not only is the silver content increasingly adulterated with base metals of copper, tin and zinc, but fake gems are often substituted for real ones. However, the ancient designs and techniques used for making the jewellery remain unchanged. Modern manufacturing methods cannot successfully duplicate the intricate filigree and fine detailing of the ornaments, so no matter what the metal content or how worthless the stones, the pieces must still be fashioned by the skilled hands of a professional.
The nomadic tribes rarely include a silversmith. Most skilled jewellers were settled folk living near oases. Although they often aligned themselves with a specific Bedouin group, and catered exclusively to the group's needs, they were not considered part of the tribal structure. It was usual for the jewellers to fashion the same item in varying degrees of silver, thus allowing even the humblest families to bedeck their women in style. These days, only an expert can determine the value or rarity of certain pieces as the silver content varies so drastically. Rarely did a metallurgist hallmark his pieces, but those that have been signed fetch high prices from collectors both overseas and in the Kingdom.
In bygone days, silversmiths squatting over their anvils fashioning metal into jewellery was a common sight in any souq. They heated the metal over a fire in a process called annealing -- as it cooled and became soft, it could be bent into shape or hammered out flat. Embossing and engraving with decorative patterns were done after the metal was annealed. Round objects such as hollow bracelets and large balls were made in halves then soldered together. Soldering is the general method used to assemble the basic parts of the jewellery and also the manner in which gemstones, beads, coins and beads are amalgamated into the finished trinket.
Each semi-precious gemstone is traditionally associated with specific virtues and beliefs -- though many today take these ' beliefs' with the equally traditional 'pinch of salt'. Red stones, whether cornelian, agate, garnet or coral, are the most favoured. Agate is said to make the wearer a more agreeable person, while coral is for wisdom and garnet has the power to alleviate illnesses whose symptoms are bleeding and inflammation. Sapphires, which are extremely rare in Bedouin jewellery settings, are the emblem of chastity and green stones were believed by the ancients to prevent disease. Turquoise, along with amber and coral, have been the most common stones in Arab body adornment for more than two thousand years. Turquoise is said to glow when the wearer is happy but lose its lustre when the wearer is sad.
Today a few hundred herdsmen and their families still roam the Arabian desert living much as their grandfathers did, although the camel has been replaced by a four-wheel drive vehicle as the primary mode of transport. However, many Bedouin have abandoned their nomadic lifestyle altogether and settled in the cities. Their old traditions, such as the famed Bedouin hospitality and ceremonial folk dances have become an integral part of modern Arabian culture but their crafts have been seriously neglected, being now little regarded except on rare ceremonial occasions.
There is little reliably-documented ethnography about Bedouin lifestyle. Because folk tales passed on to new generations are often shrouded in romantic fancy, it is imperative that artistic traditions survive until they can assume their proper importance in the cultural history of the Bedu.
Gahwa -- an age old custom
The preparation, serving and drinking of gahwa -- Arabian coffee -- are each individual rituals derived from Bedouin hospitality; traditions that are still bound today by the same ceremony and etiquette which have ruled for centuries.
According to legend, coffee-drinking began in Arabia almost 12 centuries ago when a goat herder named Khalid noticed that while the afternoon sun made him drowsy, his flock frolicked and gambolled after nibbling at the berries of a certain evergreen bush. The ingenious Khalid ground and boiled the agreeable berries and so invented a phenomenon that has worked its way into the marrow of everyday life.
The gahwa ritual (pictured) starts when the host places a set of four coffee pots, called della, next to an open fire. He pours the coffee beans onto a mahmasa, a shallow, long-handled iron pan which he holds just above the flames. He stirs the roasting beans from time to time with a yad al mahmasa, which is attached by a chain to the small pan. When the beans are cooked they are left to cool before being pulverised with a pestle in a mortar called mahbash. When pounding the beans it is necessary to strike the side of the mortar occasionally with the pestle to free the grounds from sticking together. This noise is considered music and the guests should listen carefully and show appreciation of the host's artistic expression.
The largest della contains the coffee grounds from previous days, so water is poured into the second largest pot, to which the freshly ground coffee is added and then boiled over the fire. Meanwhile, the host pounds the cardamom seeds, and sometimes a pinch of saffron, in the mahbash. These spices go into the third della which is then filled with the freshly brewed coffee from the second pot and brought to the boil again. Finally the gahwa is poured into the fourth and smallest pot ready to serve.
It is always the host's privilege to serve his guests, although a servant may assist by holding the tray of small, china cups without handles. He may pour himself a small cup first in order to taste it, but strict rules of etiquette are observed in the serving order. When only men are present, the most important person in the room is served first. Age takes precedence if there is some doubt as to rank. Until a few years ago men were always served before women, but today that custom is often reversed, particularly if Westerners are among the guests.
The cups are only half filled, but guests may have several refills. It is polite to accept an odd number of cups -- one, three or five. When the guest has finished he should jiggle the empty cup from side to side, indicating to the host that he has had sufficient. To refuse the first round is considered not only bad manners but also an insult to the host.
Gahwa is never sweetened with sugar. Instead, fresh dates are offered as the standard accompaniment to the aromatic brew. The papery-skinned fingers of fruit contain 55% natural sugar which refresh and sweeten the palate between each sip of gahwa.
The proportions of coffee and cardamom in recipes for making gahwa varies considerably from region to region. The Saudia airline offers its passengers a blend made from 25 grams of ground Arabic coffee, 35 grams of crushed cardamom and 1 litre of water. To be served a cup of this unique beverage is more than just refreshment, it is unfailing proof that the guest is still revered and honoured in Saudi Arabia. In offering a cup of gahwa the host is saying Ahlan Wa Sahlan, welcome.
A Middle-Eastern Lilliput
Colonel Darwish Ali Salamah is a self-confessed romantic. When he retired from the Saudi Air Force seventeen years ago, he found that he had time on his hands and art in his soul. "I love to go out into the desert or up into the mountains. I love the moon and the sea. I felt it was better to kill time with something productive,"…. he reflected, as he gazed out over the spectacular grounds of his residence -- spectacular because it is here that he has created a Middle-Eastern Lilliput.
Seventeen years ago, a friend said to him: "You have the eggs of the arts inside you. Now it's time for them to hatch." And hatched they certainly have.
It all began in the colonel's own garden. "I like to work with my hands and I've always had an interest in gardening," he reminisced, instinctively pruning discoloured leaves as we stroll through the grounds of his home. "Why not design my garden differently, I considered. First, I decided to landscape by building a 'mountain' with a waterfall. I laid pipes inside the mountain and had the water flow down the side. Then I started building houses on this mountain. You can see architecture from all over Saudi Arabia in my garden." Indeed, architectural styles from Najd, Asir, Hijaz, Makkah, Madinah, Riyadh and Dhahran juxtapose colourfully within his four walls. Research into the various Saudi architectural styles was inadvertently taking place during the colonel's air force days.
After enlisting in the Saudi Air Force in 1954, Ali Salamah was sent to a flying school in Cairo. One of his Egyptian instructors was a pilot named Hosni Mubarak, now the Egyptian president. On receiving his wings, he returned to the Kingdom where he flew fighters out of Dhahran.
Colonel Salamah's career in the air dealt him one particularly close call. Bad weather and loss of communication during a training flight forced him to ditch the aircraft he was operating in the Arabian Gulf when it ran out of fuel. He only just managed to extricate himself from his harness before the plane disappeared beneath the waves. But, thankfully, the colonel's flying career was not always so hair raising.
"When I was a pilot, I was flying allover the Kingdom. Everywhere I went, I used to love visiting the surrounding countryside. Down south, I would go into the mountains. In Riyadh, I was captivated by the red sands found in that area. I even used to bring some back home with me," he explained. By the time he started building, he already had a wealth of first hand knowledge of the Kingdom's rich architectural heritage. Even the distinctive Madayyen Salah is featured along his side wall.
The construction of these miniatures is as solid as any full size villa. Ali Salamah reinforces concrete with iron bars and netting as he builds. The paint work is equally enduring. Many of his pieces are now over ten years old and show no sign of deterioration from exposure to the elements. To prove their sturdiness, he took a tiny villa -- about 15cm (6 inches) tall and 10cm (4 inches) wide -- and balanced his entire weight on its diminutive roof. Effortlessly, the villa withstood the demonstration.
Although the main thrust of his work is in the Saudi style, Ali Salamah can turn his hand to architecture from all over the world. He once received a commission from an American to reproduce the family home in Philadelphia. "I remember the number of his house was 102. He wanted to surprise his family when they visited the Kingdom, by presenting them with a model of their Philadelphian home," smiled the colonel. "They were amazed to find a replica of their house all the way over here. They took it home with them."
Not everything Ali Salamah builds is purely ornamental. His swimming pool is surrounded by plants housed in pots, which are works of art in themselves. Villas 70cm tall double decoratively as planters. And in a fanciful departure from his typical style, he has constructed mini cars which also sprout trees and shrubbery.
The colonel is receptive to taking on projects large or small. "My dream is to construct a complete town along the lines of Disneyland. I could include all Saudi regions, other Middle Eastern countries and even international theme areas," said Ali Salamah -- adding, wishfully, "Should an entrepreneur wish to sponsor such a project, I would be delighted to work with him."
What began as a hobby for this retiree, has burgeoned into a fully-fledged profession. Darwish Ali Salamah has already fulfilled some of his dreams. "I never imagined my hobby would grow into such a large scale project," he mused, as he ambled through his unique grounds.
As if on cue, the setting sun split into rays through the fronds of a date palm spotlighting the turrets he had constructed so many years ago -- yet still fresh and thriving, just like the colonel.
Hajj -- the pilgrimage to Makkah
Every Muslim's submission to the will of Allah is based on the five 'pillars of Islam', as proclaimed by His Prophet Mohammed (may peace be upon Him):
The first pillar is Sha'haddah, the profession of faith: "There is no god but Allah, and Mohammed is His Prophet".
The second pillar is Salah or prayer, which provides the Muslim with direct communion with Allah five times a day.
The third is Zakah, the obligatory payment of alms to the poor.
The fourth is Siyam, the obligatory fasting during daylight hours throughout the Holy month of Ramadan (when the Holy Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet).
Last is the fifth pillar: Al-Hajj, the pilgrimage to Makkah and its holy places during Dhul Hijjah, the closing month of the Islamic year.
The Hajj differs considerably from Umrah, which is an individual act of pilgrimage to Makkah made by Muslims at any other time of the year. Hajj is the worldwide gathering of the family of Islam in a devout and lengthy act of corporate worship, regardless of social status, wealth, nationality or colour. It is an invitation open to every Muslim, with all rivalries forgotten, and with full safety guaranteed for every pilgrim.
To symbolise the brotherhood of Islam, each pilgrim approaches the holy places dressed exactly alike: an unseamed length of white cloth girded around the waist with a cord and another draped across the left shoulder.
The pilgrim's aim is to reach the Holy Kaaba in Makkah's Grand or Inviolable Mosque, and the nearby landmarks honoured for their association with Ibrahim (Abraham), his wife Haggar, their son Ismail (Ishmael), and the Prophet Mohammed.
The Kaaba is, quite literally, the focus of Islam, as it is the direction every Muslim must face each time he prays. A simple cube-shaped building, 50 feet (15 metres) high, it is revered as the House of God, and was built, on the order of Allah, by Ibrahim and Ismail. One corner holds the famous Black Stone (Al-Hajar al-Aswad), protected by a huge silver frame.
The Kaaba is draped with a black silk covering, the Kiswa, beautifully embroidered with Qur'anic texts in gold and silver. This is replaced every year in a special ceremony which takes place one month before the Hajj.
The central role of the Kaaba in Islamic pilgrimage is ordained in the Qur'an:
"When we prepared for Ibrahim the place of the House we said: 'Worship none beside me. Keep My House clean for those who walk around it and those who stand upright or kneel in worship.' Exhort all men to make the Pilgrimage. They will come to you on foot and on the backs of swift camels from every distant quarter; they will come to avail themselves of many a benefit and to pronounce on the appointed days the name of Allah over the beasts which he has given them. Eat of their flesh yourselves, and feed the poor and unfortunate. Then let the pilgrims prepare themselves, make their vows, and circle the Ancient House. Such is Allah's commandment". (22:22/29-30)
The major rites of Hajj which are performed by Muslims today were established in the days of the Prophet Ibrahim, who built the Kaaba and made Makkah a place of pilgrimage. These rites include Tawaf, the sevenfold circling of the Kaaba, originating from Allah's command that Ibrahim take his wife Haggar and their son Ismail into the desert to entrust them to the protection of Allah. In a desperate search for water, Haggar ran seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah before beseeching the help of Allah, whereupon the well of Zam Zam burst forth at her feet. Hajj pilgrims have ever since evoked this story in their sevenfold running between Safa and Marwah. This is known as the rite of Saiy ('striving').
The abandoning of Haggar and Ismail was only one of Allah's many ways of testing Ibrahim's faith. Others are remembered by the three rocky pillars at Mina, about 3.7 miles/6km east of Makkah. Each pilgrim collects seven stones on the slopes of Muzdalifah hill, and uses them in a ritual stoning of the three pillars, which are known as 'satans'. The ritual is known as Jamarat and follows the sacrifice of a sheep by every pilgrim who can afford it. The sacrifice takes place in memory of that offered by Ibrahim at Allah's command.
The most important ritual of Hajj takes place at Arafat, 10 miles/16km from the Kaaba in Makkah. This is Wukuf, when the pilgrims spend the best part of a night and a day standing in prayer on the Arafat plain. Here they also meditate and hear sermons, according to the command of the Prophet.
Every year, pilgrims begin to arrive in Saudi Arabia about two months before the beginning of Dhul Hijjah. Most of them arrive in Jeddah, whose seaport has received pilgrims by ship for many centuries from the furthest corners of the Islamic world. More recently, the superb, custom-built Hajj Terminal at King Abdul Aziz International Airport (KAIA) has given an enormous boost to the flow of pilgrim traffic since its opening in 1981.
Pilgrims must register with a mutawwif or pilgrims' guide and, although pilgrims may prefer to perform their Hajj on their own, the mutawwif is responsible for them during their stay in the Kingdom. He plays an important role in arranging accommodation, transport, food and water.
After registration, pilgrims are transferred to the Pilgrims' City at KAIA, or to another at Jeddah seaport, where there are facilities for short-term accommodation.
The usual form of transport from Jeddah to Makkah is by bus. The Government Pilgrims' Transportation Service is just one of the many facilities funded by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for use by pilgrims. Care of pilgrims is a solemn duty commanded by the Prophet for all Muslims, a duty which is most proudly and generously upheld by the Kingdom today with the provision of more facilities every year. Many of these facilities are funded by the King himself, one of the most important of which is the distribution of millions of bags of iced water prepared, at the King's expense, at a special factory in Makkah. Other services which are of great benefit to pilgrims include mobile facilities for banking and telecommunications.
Quarters are assigned to the pilgrim when he first arrives in Makkah. Then his first duty is to enter the Grand Mosque and circle the Kaaba in the Tawaf of 'Arrival' (qudum). The beginning of the month Dhul Hijjah sees the erecting of enormous 'tent cities' at Mina and Arafat, in preparation for the commencement of Hajj on the eighth day of the month. This is known as Yaum at-tarwiya, the 'Day of Watering', and it is on this day that the pilgrim prepares his own water store for the succeeding days of the pilgrimage. He then journeys to Mina to spend the night of Yaum at-tarwiya in the tent city there, and on the next day -- the ninth day of Dhul Hijjah -- the congregation of Islam musters at Arafat.
The 'Halt' or 'Standing' at Arafat (Wukuf) is the focal point of the Hajj. The Prophet ordered that all Muslims must journey there in an orderly and peaceful manner, to assemble by noon. Between midday and sunset the massed pilgrims stand at Arafat in joint prayer and meditation before walking from Arafat to the hill of Muzdalifah at sunset. The most devout prefer to make this procession on foot, but many choose motor transport instead.
At Muzdalifah, the pilgrims join in the evening prayers, before gathering the pebbles with which they will ritually stone the 'satans' at Mina on the following day.
The tenth day of Dhul Hijjah -- Yaum-an-Nahr, the 'Day of Sacrifice' can, in effect take up to three days, due to the vast crowds gathering around the 'satans'. Sacrifices begin after the Eid prayers in the morning and here the mutawwifs are of great service, helping pilgrims arrange the buying and slaughtering of their sacrificial animals.
After the sacrifice, pilgrims perform Tawaf Ifada, the ceremonial hair-cutting or head shaving. The pilgrim then emerges from the consecrated state of ihram which he entered on reaching miqat at the outset of his pilgrimage. Two or three more days -- the Ayyam at-tashriq -- will be required for the pilgrim to complete his Jamarat, and once this rite has been completed the pilgrim returns to Makkah to perform a farewell Tawaf of the Kaaba. He will then either head homewards via Jeddah, or will perhaps travel on to Al Madinah to visit the Mosque of the Prophet.
The Prophet's Farewell Pilgrimage in the year 632CE is said to have been attended by 200,000 Muslims and the annual numbers of pilgrims saw very little increase for over 13 centuries. Pilgrim access to Makkah was restricted to travel by ship to Jeddah and overland by foot and by camel. Official figures for the 1950 Hajj indicate only 250,000 pilgrims, but over the past 30 years, and more particularly in the past 15, pilgrim traffic has undergone a dramatic increase. The main reason for this has been the parallel growth of Saudia, the Kingdom's national airline, and the enormous boost to pilgrim air transport afforded by low-cost flights. Custom-built air transport facilities such as the Hajj Terminal at Jeddah's KAIA, the excellent modern road network developed in the Kingdom over the same period, and the expansion of port facilities at Jeddah have all contributed to ease of access for today's pilgrims.
Every year the Kingdom takes great pains to meet the needs of its pilgrims. Months of detailed planning, and an army of administrative staff, help keep the millions of pilgrims moving smoothly to their holy destinations, speeding them safely on their way once the pilgrimage is over. Thus, more than 1,300 years after the Prophet bequeathed the duty of Hajj to the faithful of Islam, the spirit of the world's greatest annual pilgrimage is more alive than ever. In the words of the Prophet Ibrahim, as quoted in the Holy Qur'an:
"God, I have settled some of my offspring in a barren valley near Your Sacred House, so that they may observe true worship. Put in the hearts of men kindness towards them, and provide them with the earth's fruits, so that they may give thanks. God, You have knowledge of all that we hide and all that we reveal; nothing in heaven or earth is hidden from Allah. Praise be to Allah who has given me Ismail and Ishaq in my old age! All prayers are heard by Him. God, make me and my descendants steadfast in prayer. God, accept my prayer." (14:32/38)
Tents of the Arabian Desert
The tent has been a dwelling-place for man since the dawn of history. Varying geographical features and differences in the culture of its dwellers may have altered its design, but its essential qualities are unchanging: a tent needs to be flexible, and it must be lightweight.
The Bedouin of the Arabian Desert uses a black tent known as the beit al-sha'r, or 'house of hair'. These tents are woven from the hair of domesticated sheep and goats, and their design is thought to have originated in Mesopotamia. The animal hair is woven into strips of coarse cloth known as fala'if, which are then sewn together. The natural colour of the animal is retained -- mainly black goat's hair, with occasional addition of sheep's wool, which gives the tent a streaked, brown/black appearance.
The size of the tent depends on the importance of its owner, or on the size of his family. An average family would use a tent made up of narrow strips, each seven and a half metre long, supported by two tent poles. An important personage, such as a tribal sheikh, would have a more imposing dwelling, made of about six broad strips, each about twenty metres long, supported by four tent poles. Anything larger than this would not be easily transportable.
When the strips of cloth are sewn together, they make up one long rectangle. This is then raised up and supported on tent poles, known as amdan, with tent ropes (atnab) being used to keep the sides taut. A brightly decorated curtain, or qata, hangs inside across the middle of the tent to divide it into a men's and a women's section. The women's section is the larger of the two and is never seen by any man except the owner of the tent. Ruaq, or tent flaps, are long pieces of material attached to the tent sides. These hang down like a curtain at the back of the tent and are sufficiently long to wrap around the entire tent and enclose it at night.
The life of a tent cloth is about five or six years, with sections being added and renewed periodically, as they wear out. The spinning of the goat's hair is done by the women of the tribe on a simple drop spindle or maghzal. The thread is then woven on a horizontal ground loom (natui), which is extremely portable and can easily be rolled up and carried when it is time for the tribe to move on. An ancient measurement is used for the width of the loom, making the cloth strips of a standard breadth. This measurement is based on the length of the forearm.
The process of sewing the strips together is undertaken by groups of women working together, and is an occasion for celebration. The sewing is a skilled job, as the seams need to be strong and durable. Thread made from black goat's hair is used for this task.
The tent cloth is woven loosely to allow heat dispersal. Although the black colour absorbs the heat, it is still between 10 and 15-degree cooler inside the tent than outside. The tent provides shade from the hot sun, as well as insulation on cold desert nights. During rainstorms, the yarn swells up, thus closing the holes in the weave and preventing leaks. The goat's hair is naturally oily, which has an added effect of repelling the water droplets, so the tent's occupants can remain comparatively dry.
The flattened shape of the tent roof is aerodynamically designed so that it cannot be blown away by sudden gusts, or by more prolonged windy conditions common in the desert. The exceptional length of the hempen tent ropes also assists wind resistance, as the ropes act as shock absorbers. An additional advantage of these long ropes is that they can act as trip wires to protect the tent's occupants from unwelcome intruders.
It is the head of the family who directs the pitching of the tent, but the job is mainly done by the women of the family. The tent's owner chooses a suitable spot, on clear, level ground, often near the high-banked sides of a dry watercourse. The tent is unrolled and pitched so that one of its long sides faces the direction of the wind, and the men's section is always situated at the eastern end facing towards Makkah.
Tent furnishings are extremely simple, consisting of carpets and mattresses (dawashaks) spread on the floor, with pillows (masanad) placed on either side of the owner's camel saddle, so that guests can sit in comfort. Hammocks may be stretched between the tent poles. The women's section contains food stores, cooking utensils and spindles, together with the camel litters in which the women ride.
Marco Polo once described a tent used by Kublai Khan on a hunting trip. Its ropes were made of silk and it was lined with ermines and sables and coated with the skins of lions. The interior was large enough to accommodate 10,000 soldiers and their officers. Impressive indeed and a far cry from the humbler version used by the Bedouin people. However, for practicality, durability and adherence to tradition, the beit al-sha'r, or 'house of hair' is a winning design proved by centuries of use.
I hope it's good enough.. good luck
sorry traah fee shotcuts for emoticons ana ma a3reftha so it apears in the text
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http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/satoc.html
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http://www.arab.net/saudi/
insha allah al ma3lomat ili fiha tsa3deek
Best luck