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التعليقات (5)
او موضوع اكتشاف البنسلين
الدواء العجيب
The Wonder Drug
The Story of the Discovery of Penicillin
You are all undoubtedly familiar with the story of penicillin. In all introductory text books, in the life science, the story always tells how penicillin was discovered accidentally, at St. Mary's Hospital, in London, by Dr. Alexander Fleming. Fleming was examining a culture of Staphylococcus aureus, a pathogenic bacterium on which he was doing some research, when he noticed that it had become contaminated by a species of Penicillium. Although, the species of the mold was unknown to Fleming, at the time, he did observe that it was inhibiting the bacterial growth. Fleming wrote a paper on his findings in 1929 and the rest is history. However, it was never that simple. Such a short summary really does not tell you the entire story, and in this case, says that Fleming's discovery of penicillin was one of chance and does not credit other people, who were just as deserving or more so in the development of penicillin for medicinal use.
Some luck, surely was involved, as is true with many events. Alexander Fleming did not have any ambition to become a doctor throughout his life. His start into bacteriological medicine came from an unlikely string of events. In 1900, when the Boer War broke out between England and colonies in southern Africa, Fleming and two brothers joined a Scottish regiment. This turned out not to be such a dangerous time for them as they had chanced upon a country club environment. They spent much of their time shooting, swimming, and even playing water polo. Following the war, Fleming returned home to discover that his uncle had died and left him and his brothers with a sizable inheritance. His older brother, Tom, who was a successful doctor by this time, advised him to invest his money on his career and suggested that he attend medical school. Fleming scored high on his examination and was able to select from three medical schools. He knew nothing of these schools and selected St. Mary's Hospital, in London, only because he had once played water polo against them. After graduation, Fleming had trained to be a surgeon for just as random a reason, but then found himself in a choice that was even more bizarre. He had the option of taking a position, as a surgeon and leaving St. Mary's or he could join the Inoculation Service and stay at St. Mary's. The major influence on Fleming staying was that the captain of St. Mary's rifle club knew of his option and was desperate to improve his team. Knowing that Fleming was a great shot he did all he could to keep him at St. Mary's. He convinced Fleming to join his department in order to work with its brilliant director -- and to join the rifle club. Fleming would stay at St. Mary's, where his discovery of penicillin was made, and for the rest of his career .
الدواء العجيب
The Wonder Drug
The Story of the Discovery of Penicillin
You are all undoubtedly familiar with the story of penicillin. In all introductory text books, in the life science, the story always tells how penicillin was discovered accidentally, at St. Mary's Hospital, in London, by Dr. Alexander Fleming. Fleming was examining a culture of Staphylococcus aureus, a pathogenic bacterium on which he was doing some research, when he noticed that it had become contaminated by a species of Penicillium. Although, the species of the mold was unknown to Fleming, at the time, he did observe that it was inhibiting the bacterial growth. Fleming wrote a paper on his findings in 1929 and the rest is history. However, it was never that simple. Such a short summary really does not tell you the entire story, and in this case, says that Fleming's discovery of penicillin was one of chance and does not credit other people, who were just as deserving or more so in the development of penicillin for medicinal use.
Some luck, surely was involved, as is true with many events. Alexander Fleming did not have any ambition to become a doctor throughout his life. His start into bacteriological medicine came from an unlikely string of events. In 1900, when the Boer War broke out between England and colonies in southern Africa, Fleming and two brothers joined a Scottish regiment. This turned out not to be such a dangerous time for them as they had chanced upon a country club environment. They spent much of their time shooting, swimming, and even playing water polo. Following the war, Fleming returned home to discover that his uncle had died and left him and his brothers with a sizable inheritance. His older brother, Tom, who was a successful doctor by this time, advised him to invest his money on his career and suggested that he attend medical school. Fleming scored high on his examination and was able to select from three medical schools. He knew nothing of these schools and selected St. Mary's Hospital, in London, only because he had once played water polo against them. After graduation, Fleming had trained to be a surgeon for just as random a reason, but then found himself in a choice that was even more bizarre. He had the option of taking a position, as a surgeon and leaving St. Mary's or he could join the Inoculation Service and stay at St. Mary's. The major influence on Fleming staying was that the captain of St. Mary's rifle club knew of his option and was desperate to improve his team. Knowing that Fleming was a great shot he did all he could to keep him at St. Mary's. He convinced Fleming to join his department in order to work with its brilliant director -- and to join the rifle club. Fleming would stay at St. Mary's, where his discovery of penicillin was made, and for the rest of his career .
important person in same century
Person of the Century:
Albert Einstein
He was the embodiment of pure intellect, the bumbling professor with the German accent, a comic cliché in a thousand films. Instantly recognizable, like Charlie Chaplin's Little Tramp, Albert Einstein's shaggy-haired visage was as familiar to ordinary people as to the matrons who fluttered about him in salons from Berlin to Hollywood. Yet he was unfathomably profound — the genius among geniuses who discovered, merely by thinking about it, that the universe was not as it seemed.
Even now scientists marvel at the daring of general relativity ("I still can't see how he thought of it," said the late Richard Feynman, no slouch himself). But the great physicist was also engagingly simple, trading ties and socks for mothy sweaters and sweatshirts. He tossed off pithy aphorisms ("Science is a wonderful thing if one does not have to earn one's living at it") and playful doggerel as easily as equations. Viewing the hoopla over him with humorous detachment, he variously referred to himself as the Jewish saint or artist's model. He was a cartoonist's dream come true.
Much to his surprise, his ideas, like Darwin's, reverberated beyond science, influencing modern culture from painting to poetry. At first even many scientists didn't really grasp relativity, prompting Arthur Eddington's celebrated wisecrack (asked if it was true that only three people understood relativity, the witty British astrophysicist paused, then said, "I am trying to think who the third person is"). To the world at large, relativity seemed to pull the rug out from under perceived reality. And for many advanced thinkers of the 1920s, from Dadaists to Cubists to Freudians, that was a fitting credo, reflecting what science historian David Cassidy calls "the incomprehensiveness of the contemporary scene — the fall of monarchies, the upheaval of the social order, indeed, all the turbulence of the 20th century."
Einstein's galvanizing effect on the popular imagination continued throughout his life, and after it. Fearful his grave would become a magnet for curiosity seekers, Einstein's executors secretly scattered his ashes. But they were defeated at least in part by a pathologist who carried off his brain in hopes of learning the secrets of his genius. Only recently Canadian researchers, probing those pickled remains, found that he had an unusually large inferior parietal lobe — a center of mathematical thought and spatial imagery — and shorter connections between the frontal and temporal lobes. More definitive insights, though, are emerging from old Einstein letters and papers. These are finally coming to light after years of resistance by executors eager to shield the great relativist's image.
Unlike the avuncular caricature of his later years who left his hair unshorn, helped little girls with their math homework and was a soft touch for almost any worthy cause, Einstein is emerging from these documents as a man whose unsettled private life contrasts sharply with his serene contemplation of the universe. He could be alternately warmhearted and cold; a doting father, yet aloof; an understanding, if difficult, mate, but also an egregious flirt. "Deeply and passionately
with the fate of every stranger," wrote his friend and biographer Philipp Frank, he "immediately withdrew into his shell" when relations became intimate.
Einstein himself resisted all efforts to explore his psyche, rejecting, for example, a Freudian analyst's offer to put him on the couch. But curiosity about him continues, as evidenced by the unrelenting tide of Einstein books
Person of the Century:
Albert Einstein
He was the embodiment of pure intellect, the bumbling professor with the German accent, a comic cliché in a thousand films. Instantly recognizable, like Charlie Chaplin's Little Tramp, Albert Einstein's shaggy-haired visage was as familiar to ordinary people as to the matrons who fluttered about him in salons from Berlin to Hollywood. Yet he was unfathomably profound — the genius among geniuses who discovered, merely by thinking about it, that the universe was not as it seemed.
Even now scientists marvel at the daring of general relativity ("I still can't see how he thought of it," said the late Richard Feynman, no slouch himself). But the great physicist was also engagingly simple, trading ties and socks for mothy sweaters and sweatshirts. He tossed off pithy aphorisms ("Science is a wonderful thing if one does not have to earn one's living at it") and playful doggerel as easily as equations. Viewing the hoopla over him with humorous detachment, he variously referred to himself as the Jewish saint or artist's model. He was a cartoonist's dream come true.
Much to his surprise, his ideas, like Darwin's, reverberated beyond science, influencing modern culture from painting to poetry. At first even many scientists didn't really grasp relativity, prompting Arthur Eddington's celebrated wisecrack (asked if it was true that only three people understood relativity, the witty British astrophysicist paused, then said, "I am trying to think who the third person is"). To the world at large, relativity seemed to pull the rug out from under perceived reality. And for many advanced thinkers of the 1920s, from Dadaists to Cubists to Freudians, that was a fitting credo, reflecting what science historian David Cassidy calls "the incomprehensiveness of the contemporary scene — the fall of monarchies, the upheaval of the social order, indeed, all the turbulence of the 20th century."
Einstein's galvanizing effect on the popular imagination continued throughout his life, and after it. Fearful his grave would become a magnet for curiosity seekers, Einstein's executors secretly scattered his ashes. But they were defeated at least in part by a pathologist who carried off his brain in hopes of learning the secrets of his genius. Only recently Canadian researchers, probing those pickled remains, found that he had an unusually large inferior parietal lobe — a center of mathematical thought and spatial imagery — and shorter connections between the frontal and temporal lobes. More definitive insights, though, are emerging from old Einstein letters and papers. These are finally coming to light after years of resistance by executors eager to shield the great relativist's image.
Unlike the avuncular caricature of his later years who left his hair unshorn, helped little girls with their math homework and was a soft touch for almost any worthy cause, Einstein is emerging from these documents as a man whose unsettled private life contrasts sharply with his serene contemplation of the universe. He could be alternately warmhearted and cold; a doting father, yet aloof; an understanding, if difficult, mate, but also an egregious flirt. "Deeply and passionately
with the fate of every stranger," wrote his friend and biographer Philipp Frank, he "immediately withdrew into his shell" when relations became intimate.
Einstein himself resisted all efforts to explore his psyche, rejecting, for example, a Freudian analyst's offer to put him on the couch. But curiosity about him continues, as evidenced by the unrelenting tide of Einstein books
invention in future
3. The Weather Wand
Mark Twain once said, "Everybody talks about the weather but no one does anything about it." Now it turns out we have been "doing something" about the weather--warming up the world by burning fossil fuels. And we'll burn what's left in a hotter, faster fury, because nations like China and India are industrializing--a billion more cars will make a difference.
Here's my point, though. Once we realize we can change the weather, we won't put up with inconvenient weather anymore. We'll use those space-based mirrors and stuff to manipulate high and low pressure zones and ensure sunshine for the seventh game of the World Series. Politicians will promise sunny weekends and deliver. Rain will fall only at night. Man-made breezes will herd smog.
Chaos theory says messing with weather can be unpredictably catastrophic, but that won't stop us.
After all, the World Series only comes once a year.
3. The Weather Wand
Mark Twain once said, "Everybody talks about the weather but no one does anything about it." Now it turns out we have been "doing something" about the weather--warming up the world by burning fossil fuels. And we'll burn what's left in a hotter, faster fury, because nations like China and India are industrializing--a billion more cars will make a difference.
Here's my point, though. Once we realize we can change the weather, we won't put up with inconvenient weather anymore. We'll use those space-based mirrors and stuff to manipulate high and low pressure zones and ensure sunshine for the seventh game of the World Series. Politicians will promise sunny weekends and deliver. Rain will fall only at night. Man-made breezes will herd smog.
Chaos theory says messing with weather can be unpredictably catastrophic, but that won't stop us.
After all, the World Series only comes once a year.
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اختراع الانترنت
Fascinating facts about the invention
of the Internet by Vinton Cerf in 1973.
INTERNET
The Internet is a worldwide network of thousands of computers and computer networks. It is a public, voluntary, and cooperative effort between the connected institutions and is not owned or operated by any single organization. The Internet and Transmission Control Protocols were initially developed in 1973 by American computer scientist Vinton Cerf as part of a project sponsored by the United States Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and directed by American engineer Robert Kahn.
The Internet began as a computer network of ARPA (ARPAnet) that linked computer networks at several universities and research laboratories in the United States. The World Wide Web was developed in 1989 by English computer scientist Timothy Berners-Lee for the ****pean Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).
"The design of the Internet was done in 1973 and published in 1974. There ensued about 10 years of hard work, resulting in the roll out of Internet in 1983. Prior to that, a number of demonstrations were made of the technology - such as the first three-network interconnection demonstrated in November 1977 linking SATNET, PRNET and ARPANET in a path leading from Menlo Park, CA to University College London and back to USC/ISI in Marina del Rey, CA." . - Vinton Cerf explains the timing:
Internet, interconnection of computer networks that enables connected machines to communicate directly. The term popularly refers to a particular global interconnection of government, education, and business computer networks that is available to the public. There are also smaller internets, usually for the private use of a single organization, called intranets.
Internet technology is a primitive precursor of the Information Superhighway, a theoretical goal of computer communications to provide schools, libraries, businesses, and homes universal access to quality information that will educate, inform, and entertain. In early 1996, the Internet interconnected more than 25 million computers in over 180 countries and continues to grow at a dramatic rate.
How Internets Work
Internets are formed by connecting local networks through special computers in each network known as gateways. Gateway interconnections are made through various communication paths, including telephone lines, optical fibers, and radio links. Additional networks can be added by linking to new gateways. Information to be delivered to a remote machine is tagged with the computerized address of that particular machine.
Different types of addressing formats are used by the various services provided by internets (see Internet address). One format is known as dotted decimal, for example: 123.45.67.89. Another format describes the name of the destination computer and other routing information, such as "machine.dept.univ.edu." The suffix at the end of the internet address designates the type of organization that owns the particular computer network, for example, educational institutions (.edu), military locations (.mil), government offices (.gov), and non-profit organizations (.org). Networks outside the United States use suffixes that indicate the country, for example (.ca) for Canada.
Once addressed, the information leaves its home network through a gateway. It is routed from gateway to gateway until it reaches the local network containing the destination machine. Internets have no central control, that is, no single computer directs the flow of information. This differentiates internets from other types of online computer services, such as CompuServe, America Online, and the Microsoft Network.
The Internet Protocol
The Internet Protocol is the basic software used to control an internet. This protocol specifies how gateway machines route information from the sending computer to the recipient computer. Another protocol, Transmission Control Protocol, checks whether the information has arrived at the destination computer and, if not, causes the information to be resent.
Even though computer interaction is in its infancy, it has dramatically changed our world, bridging the barriers of time and distance, allowing people to share information and work together. Evolution toward the Information Superhighway will continue at an accelerating rate. Available content will grow rapidly, making it easier to find any information on the Internet. New applications will provide secure business transactions and new opportunities for commerce. New technologies will increase the speed of information transfer, allowing direct transfer of entertainment-on-demand. Broadcast television may be replaced by unicast, in which each home receives a signal especially tailored for what its residents want to see when they want to see it.